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, , - 2000-08-03 14:58:51 - host: 212.44.131.72 (212.44.131.72)


ПошОл отсчет... 5 минут до ядерного удара...

OPD, , - 2000-08-03 14:58:30 - host: bellatrix.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.106)


, , - 2000-08-03 14:57:55 - host: 212.44.131.72 (212.44.131.72)


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ЕБАНУТО!

Возмущённый, , - 2000-08-03 14:57:28 - host: sunrise.gu.net (194.93.191.129)


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Хм_Ырь:
Не пизди! :-))) На старой базе все хоккей! Не финский... :-) Оттуда передают, что тебя помнят, любят, но не ждут... :-) Ты ждешь -- база потупательно движется сюда, база будет здесь! :-) Я знаю, база будет! :-)))

Ыцарь:
Спокуха, у вас тут тоже не все ебанутые... :-))) Ща наладим дайлог, терпение...
А вы новую хатку себе уже подыскали? :-) А то мы хоть и гостеприимные, но долго вас тут терпеть не собираемси -- пора и честь знать... :-)))

Связной, , - 2000-08-03 14:57:19 - host: allflus2.aent.com (12.8.2.2)


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Слышь ты, аноним недоокученный, кому тут нахрен нужна твоя история Хвинляндии? Ее на Марсе в первом классе учат... Или ты токо узнал и решил поделиться со всеми своей радостью дебила?
Я не знаю, г-да грузины и марсиане, по-моему пора сворачивать пространство-время вместе с этими ёбнутыми чухонскими пионерами.... Корабль-матка на орбите уже запасает энергию ....

OPD, , - 2000-08-03 14:56:07 - host: spica.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.103)


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, , - 2000-08-03 14:54:13 - host: 212.44.131.72 (212.44.131.72)


A Web History of Finland
Up to Y2K
by Pasi Kuoppamдki


Edition 2.2 (2000) likely to include few omissions and mistakes.
A Web History of Finland
Up to Y2K
by Pasi Kuoppamдki


Edition 2.2 (2000) likely to include few omissions and mistakes.



[Foreword ]
[Other resources and literature]

[History by Chronological Order]
Pre-history before 1100 A.D.
From Viking Era under the Swedish Rule 1100-1500
From a Borderland to a Part of a Great Power 1500-1700
Rising Russia and National Identity 1700-1809
Russian Rule 1809-1917
Early Independence 1917-39
Three Finnish Wars of WWII 1939-45
Post-war Era since 1945



Current Map of Finland
(Source: CIA World Factbook)
Search the web history page.




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Foreword
This page is a modest attempt to help foreign readers, and possibly Finnish too, to learn basic Finnish history. There exists few other attempts too, but I hope this will provide an integrated story with both actual history and relevant links. It has evolved around my non-professional historical perspective, history is one of my favorite hobbies. I have utilized other sources on the web, suitable links are provided, and literacy to produce a concise but comprehensive Finnish history, possibly letting my own interests show in the composition. I've been critical to source information but further caution may be needed especially behind the links; ordinary mistakes, personal views and opinions may blur the writings. Moreover, I've tried to stick to well known facts but the facts need sometimes a little uncertain glue in between. Also, some names may not have their correct English form. Thus, absolute correctness of all information is not guaranteed. All written is not true and all trues are not written. I thank all the persons and institutions who helped to make this page possible. The text can be linked to and quoted as long as the reference is given. The pictures on this page cannot be further used without the permission of the original source*. Usual disclaimer applies, i.e. author carries responsibility on the opinions presented on this page. Feedback is welcome and I hope the page will help to appreciate the facts and lessons of history. Enjoy!

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History by Chronological Order
I've chosen to present the actual history in the order it has happened rather than by issues. The link farm at the end of the page will hopefully provide an easier approach to more focused topics.

A brief characterization on Finland and a simplified timeline for starters
Finland is a northern country that has been blessed with a harsh but beautiful landscape and a difficult geopolitical position. Long winters, endless evergreen forests, thousands of lakes and the Baltic Sea have developed the character of the Finnish people. Genetically, Finns are rather close to northern Germanic people, having a slight Siberian flavor. Finns have a peculiar language of their own with several dialects, a minority speaks Swedish. Geographically, Finland is on the far northern periphery of Europe, often left out of the maps of Europe. Geo-politically, larger neighboring nations in West and East, Sweden and Russia, have for centuries dominated the development of Finland and drawn her into innumerable wars. Under these circumstances, Finns have stoically withstood the storms and with resolution developed the nation into a democratic country with a high living standard.


Around 8000 B.C.: people arrive in Finland.
4000 B.C. - 1100 A.D.: Finns form tribes and inhabit larger parts of the country.
1100 - 1350: Sweden and Novgorod (Russia) compete over Finland. Finns are divided in their preferences. Most of the area becomes part of Swedish kingdom. Christianity spreads from the West and the East.
1350 - 1809: Finland is an integral part of Sweden with some own traditions.
1809 - 1917: Finland is annexed by Russia as an autonomous Grand Duchy.
1917 - 1918: Finland becomes an independent republic and fights a bitter civil war.
1939 - 1945: Finland fights two wars against Soviet Union, one against Germany, and remains an independent democratic market economy, but Soviet Union takes areas in Karelia.
1995: Finland joins the European Union
Pre-history before 1100 A.D.
Fairly little is known on the origins of the Finns. Finland as a socio-political entity did hardly exist before the 14th century, some would say Finland was created only in 1809 when Finland became a Grand Duchy in Russian Empire. (Hereafter Finland and Finns will often be used interchangeably, even if early Finland was just an area without strong common identity.) What is known is that the ancestors of today's Finns consisted of different tribes like Karelians, Tavastians and "proper" Finns, who lived in the area that at that time was known as "Finland" in the South-Western part of the country; these tribes have given their names and some characteristics also for some 21st century provinces. Estonians on the southern side of the Gulf of Finland were and are a strongly related nation, but they developed a separate identity. Also few other Finno-Ugrian nationalities share the roots. Later, in the Middle Ages, the country was commonly called Цsterlandet ("Eastland") or Finland, and the South-Western part became Finland Proper (Varsinais-Suomi in Finnish). Finns themselves call the country "Suomi", Finland is the name used in most languages.
Until recently it has been thought that the first people did not arrive to Finland until just over 10,000 years ago. The established view had to be reassessed, however, in 1996 when stones worked by the human hand possibly as early as the lower Palaeolithic period (over 100,000 years ago) were discovered in a cave, Susiluola ('Wolf cave'). Research continues. Speakers of early forms of Finnish, part of Finno-Ugric language family, are believed to have lived in Finland for 6,000 years. Few earlier settlers were of unknown descent, but the area (excluding the new findings from the Wolf cave) became inhabitable only after the end of the last big Ice Age some 8,000 years B.C. Archaeological finds of wood objects from east of the Ural mountains indicate that these people may have belonged to a hunting culture moving over very wide areas. One of the oldest items is a skid of a sledge dating back to 6900 B.C. Genetically Finns are much closer to western European Germanic and also Baltic people than Asiatic people, though a part of the genetical features are common with Siberian people. Large areas in northern Europe may have been populated by Fenno-Ugrian tribes in the pre-historic era. Sбmis, the indigenous people of northern Finland, and Finns possibly split into distinct cultures some 6,000 years ago creating different languages as well, but the relation is not clear at all. Genetically current Sбmis and Finns are different. An old theory claimed that Finns migrated from areas between the Ural mountains and the River Volga, but this theory is doubtful for the lack of physical evidence. Later, Baltic Indo- European immigrants settled the coast merging with the native Comb-Ceramic culture and due to cultural exchange animal husbandry was introduced about 4,500 years ago.

Approximately 2,000 years ago the southern and western coasts were inhabited by people in close cultural contact with Scandinavia, but the inland kept closer contacts to the East. Thus, some cultural differentiation between the geographically separated groups may have occurred. "Roman Iron Age" (1-400 A.D.) evidence implies that a Baltic sea-farer culture connected estuaries at Southern shores of the Baltic Sea with Finland, Estonia and Sweden. Fur was the major export good of that time. Settlement was concentrated in villages, while social development appears to have been fairly advanced in other ways as well. Rich graveyards from that period have been found and coastal cultural influence spread inland to Tavastia. Several layers of folklore reflect the cultural interaction between three ecological regions: the Arctic, the Woodland and the Coastal Lowlands. Еland (Ahvenanmaa in Finnish) was colonized by people from what is currently known as Sweden and has remained culturally Swedish ever since. During the late first millennium the Western Finnish culture spread its influence to Karelia in eastern Finland, around Lake Ladoga, where an independent culture arose. A Roman historian Tacitus mentions miserable and poor "Fenni" in "Germania" in A.D. 98 but his description does not fit the historical knowledge about Finns.

During Viking age the three above mentioned distinct Finnish cultures can be identified: Karjala ( Karelia ), Hдme (Tavastia/Tavastland) covering the southern lake-area and Varsinais-Suomi (Finland proper) at the south-western coast. It is believed that these tribes had an administrative system with governors (or "kings") comparable to those among Germanic tribes, and local councils where free men discussed common matters. Some even believe that there was a united Finnish "kingdom", e.g. some Scandinavian sagas mention " Finnish kings" but the theory remains very questionable. Vikings sailed the Finnish coast on their way to east but did not manage to get permanent power in Finland, though Viking sagas mention raids into the Finnish inland. Remains of local "hill castles" for defensive purposes have been found from that era. Finns probably did not launch Viking type of raids outside the Baltic. Some revenge raids against the Vikings and also Novgorod were made though; as late as in 1187 Karelians and Estonians sailed, and plundered and burned the main city of Sweden, Sigtuna . There exists also some evidence indicating that Finns may have been actively participating in the Swedish voyages to Russia, but nothing certain is known. The word "Rus" for Russia may derive from Ruotsi, the Finnish name for Sweden.

The exchange of goods and ideas between the coastal inhabitants and Germanic tribes in Scandinavia was active. Vikings probably settled also at Finnish, often not habited, shores and estuaries, established families with Finns and merged with the native population's gene pool. Some Finnish and Viking trading posts have been found, e.g. the town of Staraja Ladoga in Karelia was a Viking stronghold. Al Idris, the geographist of the Norman king of Sicily mentions Tavastland first time in 1154. Valuable material on the early history was rare to begin with. Much has been destroyed for example in fires of libraries. All in all, too much remains unknown about the pre-Swedish history of Finland. The prehistory of Finland in a nutshell by Pirjo Uino (Finfo)
Ancient Finnish religion by Juha Pentikдinen (Finfo)

Introduction to Kalevala - the Finnish national epic by Anneli Asplund (Finfo)

Viking network

The prehistory of Finland with lots of graphics

Where do the Finns come from? by Christian Carpelan (Finfo)

Origin of the Finnish People in the Light of Science and Mythology - a partisan view on the origin and prehistory of Finns

Typical comb-ceramic bowl
(Source: University of Helsinki*)


From Viking Era under the Swedish Rule 1100-1500
During the early 12th century, Finland was almost a political vacuum, though the separate tribes existed, and interesting to its neighbors Sweden and Novgorod (Russian). Also Denmark was interested in areas at the Gulf of Finland but with little success, except in Estonia which was under Danish rule for some time. Moreover, the Catholic and Greek Orthodox Churches wanted to spread their faith into Finland, using also the power of sword if necessary, though some Finns had already adopted Christianity in peaceful ways. Sweden, where a more integrated nation state had emerged earlier due to closer contacts with central Europe, was more successful in its military operations and "crusades" (1155, 1238 or 1949 and 1293) to different parts of Finland. According to a legend, Nicholas Breakspear, an English Cardinal who became Pope Adrian IV, encouraged the Swedish King Eric to cross the sea with a strong force. This so-called First Crusade to Finland, launched by Swedes and led by the English Bishop Henry and the King Erik, was probably made in 1155. Groups of Finns were allied with the Swedes at that point already, Finns were divided. Some Swedish speaking population probably already existed at the Finnish coasts, too. Some evidence indicates that the "crusades" could have been mainly military attacks by the allied Swedes and Finns against other Finns and Novgorod. According to legends, Bishop Henry was killed within a year and subsequently became the patron saint of Turku and Finland. A papal bull (1171 or 1172) proposed that the Swedes hold Finland in subjection with permanent garrisons. The bull also claims that some Finns have been treacherous by asking military help against Novgorod in exchange for their conversion to Catholicism and abandoning the faith after the threat has been abolished. In any case, the Greek Orthodox Church extended its influence from Novgorod to Karelia, where a mass baptization was executed in 1227, and Tavastia, which was still more independent revenging the Novgorodian raids in 1228, causing a clash with the Catholic side.
Bishop Thomas (1220-45) extended the Finnish Catholic diocese to Tavastia, probably with armed assistance; a "pagan" rebellion followed (the timing of the 2nd or "Tavastian" Crusade is uncertain, some sources place it in 1238 and others beyond the death of Thomas in 1249). Fairly soon, the rebellion was defeated by forces loyal to Catholic Sweden. Sweden's de facto head Earl Birger (1248-66) strengthened the Swedish power in Tavastia, also a castle was built in Hдmeenlinna. The alliance between Finns and Swedes became more evident, they made a military expedition, led by Thomas, against Novgorod in 1240, but lost the final battle at river Neva (the leader of Novgorod became subsequently Alexander Nevski). Novgorodians also made few raids to Finland and burned the Cathedral of Turku. 3rd Crusade was made to Karelia in 1293 and a castle was built in Viipuri (Vyborg) to protect the eastern border; Karelia became more divided causing trouble later ion. Population estimates for this time are extremely difficult to make, but it was still extremely sparse and there may have been only some 50,000 Finns.

The peace treaty of Noteburg (Pдhkinдsaari) in 1323 between Sweden and Novgorod assigned only Eastern Finland to Novgorod, the borders of Finland as a part of Sweden were defined first time by a treaty. The current mainland of Finland, western and southern parts, were tied to Sweden and the Western European cultural sphere, while eastern Finland, Karelia, became more closely linked to the Russo-Orthodox world; Finns shared the fortunes and misfortunes, not always equally, of Sweden for the next some 500 years till 1809. Consequently, Finland has remained between East and West ever since searching for its own, largely west oriented, identity.

Swedish domination meant that Swedish legal and social systems rooted in Finland. Central European type of Feudalism was not part of the system and the Finnish peasants were never serfs; they always retained their personal freedom. The Swedish system was probably not in any great contrast to the earlier traditions, except for the religion, taxation and unity of the state with Swedish as the high-level administrative language. Native Finns held important positions in the administration, weak central government and internal disputes in Sweden made the local administration powerful. Starting from the latter part of the thirteenth century the crown slowly gained a greater authority with the introduction of royal castles, establishment of temporal nobility and provincial administration. Most important town during the Swedish period in Finland was Turku, founded in the middle of the 13th century; Turku (Еbo in Swedish) was also the Bishop's seat. The first native Bishop was appointed in 1291.

Consolidation of Finland as an integral part of the Swedish Kingdom continued, in 1362 Finns were given the right to send representatives to the election of the King in Sweden, and after the period of Kalmar Union between the Scandinavian kingdoms in the 16th century this right was extended to include representation in the Swedish Diet. The consequent development could be described as Sweden and Finland growing to be an actual uniform country together, originally the country was divided into Gцta, Svea and Finland. Svea and Gцta had been separate kingdoms early in the Middle Ages but then their difference slowly disappeared. A name Sweden was used of all of them and later Skеne (Scania) grew to the same connection from the areas taken from Denmark. The division was sometimes useful though, e.g. when the country was divided into Gцta's, Svea's and Finland's courts of appeal. Finland was occasionally considered to be a grand duchy to lift the Swedish king's prestige (officially after 1581), also geographers and historians made the distinction. Finnish language survived but was not yet developed into a real "cultural language".

The Union of Kalmar (1397-1521/23) between Nordic countries, Denmark as the dominant member, allowed Finnish nobility to act rather freely, eg during the 1460's Tott brothers ruled Finland very independently like regents. The ruling upper class of Finland was very small and disintegrated, however. The Catholic Church and powerful Bishops played an important role too. The clergy and few others got their higher education often from the University of Paris, two of the Rectors were from Finland during the 14th and 15th century, and later from German and Swedish universities. King Kristoffer developed legislation (1442), which led to the development of rural jurisdictional districts. Trade increased and foreign merchants settled in bigger Finnish towns, Hanseatic League was a powerful organization in Finland too. Finns exported at least furs and fish. Swedes rebelled few times with varying success against harsh Danish rule; the unrest spread also to Finland in smaller scale and the Union became less popular. Novgorod was defeated by growing Moscow (Russia) in 1471 and finally annexed in 1478, subsequently a stronger pressure on Finland re-emerged from the East. A famous incident took place when the Castle of Viipuri was sieged in 1495, under Ivan III of Moscow who had allied with Danes. The situation of the defenders looked hopeless, but they were saved by the mysterious "Viborg blast", a big explosion which scared off the Russians because they saw a St. Andrew's cross in the sky.

Population grew more or less steadily during the 15th and 16th century, possibly reaching half a million inhabitants by the 17th century. Life was simple for the peasantry. Ordinary meals consisted of bread, dry or salted fish and water or sour milk for drink. Clothes were made of flax or wool, hemp and nettle were also used. Hard life in the wide forests with infrequent wars taught both the men and women to be rather independent and resourceful. Consequently, also lured by tax relief incentives, people slowly moved into the free inland areas, where new "tribes" or provinces emerged, two important ones were Savo (Savolax) east of Tavastia and Pohjanmaa (Ostrobotnia) at the western coastal planes; even today one can find some traces of the East-West divide in architecture and cultivation history, slash and burn method maintained long its place in the Eastern Finland. Swedish regents and Kings before the Vasas
1130-1156 Sverker
1150-1160 Erik den helige
1160-1167 Karl Sverkersson
1167-1195 Knut Eriksson
1195-1208 Sverker Karlsson
1208-1216 Erik Knutsson
1216-1222 Johan Sverkersson
1222-1229 Erik Eriksson
1229-1234 Knut Holmgersson Lеnge
1234-1249 Erik Eriksson Lдspe och Halte

Folkungas:
1250-1266 Birger Jarl
1250-1275 Valdemar Birgersson
1275-1290 Magnus Birgersson Ladulеs
1290-1318 Birger Magnusson
1319-1364 Magnus Eriksson

Mecklenburgs:
1364-1389 Albrekt af Mecklenburg

Unions of Kalmar regents:
1389-1412 Margareta
1396-1439 Erik af Pommern
1436-1440 Karl Knutsson
1440-1448 Kristoffer III af Bayern
1457-1464 Kristian I
1470-1497 Sten Sture
1497-1501 Johan II (Hans)
1501-1503 Sten Sture
1504-1512 Svante Nilsson Sture
1512-1520 Sten Sture d.y.
1520-1522 Kristian II

Castle of Turku, the first real stronghold of Swedish power in Finland. Building was started app 1280.
(Source: City of Turku*)

Olavinlinna castle, a fortress in Savo against Russia, built (1475-) during the introduction of effective fire arms.
(Source: National Board of Antiquities*)

12th century events, 13th century events, 14th century events and 15th century events from Agricola network in Finnish

Pope Innocentius IV's Letter of Protection to Confessors of Christian Faith in Finland 1249

An essay on the origins of Swedish-Finns

Map of Sweden(-Finland) during the 14th century.

The crusade period 1025-1300

"The Finns are accustomed to skiing as fast as they wish, so that it is said that now they are close by and soon again they are far away. As soon as they have inflicted damage on the enemy, they rush away as swiftly as they came."
- Saxo Grammaticus: Gesta Danorum, 13th century

Rising Sweden - From a Borderland to a Part of a Great Power 1500-1700
The aftermath of the dissolution of Kalmar Union between Nordic Kingdoms, which had become beset by conflict between the aristocrats and civil unrest due to hard taxation and unjust administration, in 1523 led to the birth of more expansionist Sweden, with Finland as the eastern half. Danes were driven out of Finland with joint efforts of Finns and Swedes. Gustaf Vasa, the new King (1521-60), started Lutheran reformation in the early 16th century in Sweden and Finland (1527), and the Catholic Church consequently lost out to the Lutheran faith as it was declared to be the State religion. King gained control over much of the property of the Church. The central government around the King strengthened and modernized along lines learned from German states, a hereditary monarchy was introduced in 1544. The changes set in motion also a great rise in Finnish-language culture. Viipuri was established as Finland's second bishopric beside Turku in 1554. New Testament was translated into Finnish in 1548 by Mikael Agricola (1510-1557), the Bishop of Turku, who brought the Reformation to Finland and created written Finnish. The entire Bible was first translated into Finnish in 1642. During the 16th century Finland also became a prioritized part of the realm. The Vasa princes were even taught Finnish, and the Finnish nobility made great careers in the civil service and the army. During a war (1555-1557) against Ivan IV the Terrible of Russia, south-western part of Finland was given as a Duchy to the future King John (Johan) III, whose Renaissance court in Turku Castle brought some glory to the small town. Finnish language was widely used in the administration. Helsinki was founded in 1550 as a new trading post in southern Finland and a competitor to Tallinn, Hansa city on the opposite shore of the Gulf of Finland in Estonia. Finland often took alone care of the Eastern cardinal point as the "proper Swedes" stood against the Danes.
Repeated wars against Russia extended the areas in the east, but keeping up military readiness was hard for the heavily taxed Finnish peasantry. Peace of Teusina (1595), also recognising Swedish rule over northern Estonia, ended a 25 years long war but military service continued. Peasants had to support large army formations. Consequently, a civil uprising called the " nuijasota " (Cudgel War) (1596-97) was fought against the military demands and local nobility, the uprising was eventually suppressed hard. The rebels gathered troops in Pohjanmaa (Ostrobothnia) and inner Finland, southernmost parts of the country remained calm, partly due to more tight government control. The war happened simultaneously with and catalyzed by the struggle for the thrown of Sweden between King Sigismund and his uncle Duke Karl, catholic Sigismund was also King of Poland. Sigismund's Polish connection could have been valuable for Finland as an ally against Russia and for trade. Thus, the Finnish nobility led by Klaus Fleming, governor of Finland and marshal of the Swedish army, largely took the side of the King Sigismund. Therefore, their opponent Duke Karl encouraged the discontented Finnish peasantry into an open revolt. Fleming was also preparing an army to invade Sweden proper, but his health was not too good. Duke Karl was backed by the majority of nobility, the Protestant Church and Diet in Sweden. Fleming was not very popular among the Swedish aristocracy even if he had been a succeful general, admiral and administrator. Consequently, Karl's victory in Sweden, Sigismund was dethroned in 1598, and Fleming's premature death led to punitive measures against the weakened Finnish nobility. Soon, many of the government officials in Finland were replaced by Swedes, who mostly were unable to speak Finnish. Thus, first the rebelling Finnish peasantry was punished by the local nobles and then the Finnish aristocracy was punished for opposing the "usurper" Duke Karl.

Gustaf II Adolf, possibly the internationally best known Swedish King, triumphantly led Sweden to the Thirty years' war (1618-48). The army consisted originally largely of native Swedes and Finns with only some mercenaries fighting as far south as Bavaria. The campaign probably saved the Lutheran faith in northern Germany, but it also caused terrible damage and suffering long remembered. The Finnish cavalry, known as hakkapeliittas, fought successfully and spread fear among the Catholic Imperial troops who're used to more old-fashioned and rigid warfare. There is evidence that the ordinary Central Europeans made a difference between Swedish and Finnish troops, both native to the Swedish kingdom, during the war. The following territorial conquests from Denmark, Russia and German states raised Sweden(-Finland) to a great power status for a hundred years. Sweden was a small but efficient country and seized the opportunities. Thus, Sweden extended its realm around the Baltic and managed, due to the weakness of Russia, to push the Finnish border further east in Karelia and the Baltics; during the Russian " time of troubles" at the beginning of 17th century Jacob de la Gardie ("Lazy Jaakko" for his Finnish soldiers) occupied Moscow, in support of Vasili Shuiskii as the Czar against competitors, for a while and also ruled in Novgorod before the new Czar from Romanov family was chosen and a peace was made. Wars had, however, devastated areas in Karelia. Many Orthodox Christian Karelians emigrated to the Tver region near Moscow. Migration between Sweden and Finland was also continuous, some Finns formed communities in Sweden-proper. Sweden had also a short-lived, partly Finnish populated, colony called New Sweden, in the Delaware region in Northern America.

With the consolidation of the administration in Stockholm, uniform Swedish rule was extended to Finland during the 17th century. Accordingly, Sweden-Swedes were often appointed to high offices in Finland, which strengthened the position of the Swedish language in Finland on the cost of native Finnish culture. Also, the incidents of the earlier "Cudgel War" had not helped the Finnish upper class aspirations for better position within the Kingdom. In the army, however, Finns continued to make a significant contribution. It is also worth to note that the new areas in the East were "won lands" and for long time did not have the same rights as the rest of Finland in Swedish Kingdom. Aristocrats, who had been successful leaders in wars and administration, received large land estates in Sweden and Finland, which posed a threat to the freedom of the peasantry. First aristocracy won privileges and power also from the King, later high civil servants (often members of aristocracy) gained power. Finally, during the latter part of 17th century, the "Reduction" diminished the land holdings and power of aristocracy and benefited farmers to some extent. Hard military service and famines (1696-98) caused by disastrous weather conditions, during the temporarily deteriorated climate of the "little ice age", decreased the population significantly. Moreover, restrictions on tar and other trade for the benefit of Stockholm made the commercial development in Finland slow. Wars continued, e.g. while Sweden engaged Denmark, Russians attacked in 1656-58 to free the Orthodox Christians from the Swedish rule ("War of Rupture", "ruptuurisota") and had to be repulsed by minor native forces. As a result, more Orthodox Christian Karelians fled to Russia, Lutheranism strengthened its position in Finnish Karelia and Ingria (a small Baltic-Finnic province at the bottom of the Gulf of Finland). Therefore, being part of a great power was not always prosperous time for Finland, the people paid a high price for being part of a great power. Count Peter Brahe, however, as the general governor (1637-40, 1648-54) significantly helped to develop Finland and the infrastructure. New towns were founded and postal system established. Moreover, the Academy of Turku was founded in 1640 creating the foundation for Finnish university education. First paper mill began operations in Finland in 1667. Swedish Kings from Gustaf Vasa till the dissolution of Sweden(-Finland) 1809
1521-1560 Gustaf I Vasa
1560-1568 Erik XIV (son of Gustaf Vasa)
1568-1592 Johan III (son of Gustaf Vasa)
1592-1599 Sigismund (son of Johan III)
1599-1611 Karl IX (son of Gustaf Vasa)
1611-1632 Gustaf II Adolf (son of Karl IX)
1632-1654 Kristina
1654-1660 Karl X Gustaf
1660-1697 Karl XI
1697-1718 Karl XII
1718-1720 Ulrica Elenora
1720-1751 Fredrik I
1751-1771 Adolf Fredrik
1771-1792 Gustaf III
1792-1809 Gustaf IV

Financial Management at Hдme Castle in the Mid-sixteenth Century (from 1539 to about 1570) by Anna-Maria Vilkuna

Peace treaty of Teusina (Tдyssinд) in 1595 between Sweden and Russia

16th century events and 17th century events from Agricola network in Finnish

Swedish war history - a timeline in Swedish

History of firearms in Sweden(-Finland)

Some history of Ingria between Finland and Russia

The Salary for The Sin is Death - Witchcraft in Finland by Heikkinen, Kervinen and Nenonen.

Medieval Castles of Finland from FINFO

Maps of Finland as part of Sweden from FINFO

"The Finnish people are so experienced in the shipwrightґs craft that they can build vessels which are as strong and durable, yes, perhaps even better than those which I have seen built by the Venetians with their brilliant gifts in this field."
- Olaus Magnus, Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus, 1555

"Finlande is called a fayre countrye, because it is more pleasanter than Swecia. Much wine is transported thither, out of Spayne, by the sea Balthic, which people of the Countrye much desireth, to exhillerat their myndes...The Finnons have continual warres wyth the Muscovites in the arm or bosome of the sea Finnonicus: using in Summer the ayde of Shyppes, and in Wynther they combat upon Ise ..."
- George North, 1561

Mikael Agricola (1510-57)
Lutheran reformist and linguist
(Source: National Board of Antiquities*)

Gustaf II Adolf (King 1611-32)
"Lion of the North"
(Source: National Board of Antiquities*)


Louhisaari Manor, built 1655. Home of Fleming and later Mannerheim family.
(Source: National Board of Antiquities*)




Later Swedish Rule - Rising Russia and National Identity 1700-1809
Peter the Great reformed and developed Russia into a great power to reckon with. Russia wanted to expand and gain an access to the Baltic Sea. A clash with Sweden was inevitable. In 1700 Denmark, Poland, Saxony and Russia declared war on Sweden starting the Great Northern War (1700-1721). Young King Karl XII led, after magnificent victories elsewhere (he won a much larger Russian army at Narva in 1700, forced the Danes to peace, defeated the Saxony, won and dethroned the Polish king in 1706), the army deep into Russia and Ukraine where the loss in the Battle of Poltava in 1709 marked the beginning of the end of great power period. Sweden had reached the limit of its strength by fighting half of Europe at the same time and by entering the Russian winter. A plague killed two thirds of the population of Helsinki, which was still only a small town, in 1710. Because Sweden was in war with several countries Finland had to send some 60,000 soldiers out of the earlier famine beaten population of 300,-400,000 to fight all over Baltic rim and Russia, only around 10,000 survived intact to defend Finland. In total, Sweden lost some 200,000 soldiers in combat, decease, and famines out of population around 2 millions. Consequently, Russia briefly occupied most of Finland, the period known as "great wrath" (1713-21). Occupying Russian troops behaved originally relentlessly, later better, many nobles and wealthy people fled to western Sweden not to return. Some Finns fought the Russians as guerillas (they were called as "kivekkддt" after one leader from Ingria). The main part of the remaining Finnish army was destroyed in a snow storm during the Norwegian campaign of Karl XII in 1718, during which he also died. The following peace of Uusikaupunki (1721) ceded large parts of Karelia to Russia, the border came very close to the current Finnish eastern border. Population had been severely diminished and impoverished by the war, famines, occupation, territorial losses and plague. St.Petersburg, new capital of Russia, was founded in the middle of largely Finnish populated Ingria in 1703.
Sweden had not, however, given up its hopes for still being a great power and soon another war , the "War of the Hats" (1741-43) named after adventurous politics by the "Hat" party as opposed to the peace politics of the "Nightcaps" party, lead to additional losses in the peace treaty of Turku in 1743. The Swedish army was not any more either well prepared or motivated. In the course of the War the Russian empress Elizabeth declared to the Finnish people her intention of making Finland a separate state under Russian suzerainty. She failed to follow up the idea, but it found favour with some Finns. Another war followed, Sweden attacked Prussia (1757-62) during the Seven Years war, better known as the "War of Pomerania" ("Pommerin sota") in Finland, which came to nothing but an expensive campaign. Finnish soldiers brought potato from Germany back home, though it had been tried already a decade ago. Sweden made one more attempt against Russia during the "Gustavian era" (1772-1809). The "Theater King" Gustav III, who also had reimposed mild absolutism in Sweden in 1772, tried to alter the verdict of the Great Northern War by declaring war against Russia in 1788. The campaign failed partly due to a significant incident, mutiny of a group of Finnish military officers (the Anjala League) who were weary of Finland serving as a battleground between Sweden and Russia. Because of successful defence including famous sea battles at Svensksund and Russia's simultaneous involvement in a war with the Ottoman Empire, Sweden was able to secure a stalemate settlement in 1790 in the Treaty of Vдrдlд. Thus, Sweden was no longer a great power and it began to put more effort to internal politics and infrastructure, which was a good thing as such.

Free market economics began to develop and a Finnish economist (really a priest) Antti Chydenius published a study on economics in 1765 somewhat similar to Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations (1776) before him, in Swedish. Politicians from Finland often played a leading role during the Parliamentarian times (1723-72), eg Count Arvid Horn (from the "Nightcaps" party) was Chancellor in 1721-38. In the end of the century Gustav Mauritz Armfelt became the leading councilor at King Gustav III - and then later the Russian emperor's councilor-in-chief for Finnish affairs. Legislation was significantly developed in 1734, the "Law of 1734" remained partially long in force in Finland. The agrarian settlement pattern changed, from more closed villages to widely scattered family farms, because of an "enclosure movement" or "big reallocation" (isojako), started in 1757 with the objective of replacing the old system of strip-farming with a more efficient system of integrated and independent landholdings. The more peaceful era also created rapid population growth, even if need for labour was often greater than supply. First newspaper in Finnish, Tieto-Sanomat, was published in 1776. Moreover, a Finnish national identity, clearly separate from what people felt in proper Sweden, began to develop, but the people remained loyal to the throne that served them reasonably well by the standards of 18th century. The government also started to take Finnish language more seriously, new notes had both Swedish and Finnish text. Finland was still the eastern half of the Swedish Kingdom, a smaller and poorer but also rich in common culture and strong people. 18th century events from Agricola network in Finnish
What Finland was before 1809 in Finnish by Ohto Manninen

Suomenlinna - the Gibraltar of Norden

Art of the Gustavian Era at Ateneum, the Museum of Finnish Art

Map of Sweden's possessions and losses during the 17th and 18th century.

Time of Chydenius in Finnish

"Their [Finns] character can tolerate cold and toil and what many a nation would consider to be insufferable famine."
- Christian Friedrich Weber, Das verдnderte Russland, 1721

"The climate is severe; there is scarcely any spring or autumn, but there are nine months of winter in the year... The people ... live to a good old age when they do not undermine their constitutions by the abuse of strong drink..."
- Voltaire, Histoire de Charles XII (description of Sweden and Finland) 1731

Old Finnish sauna, an important part of national heritage.
(Source: The Finnish Sauna Society)


Russian Rule 1809-1917
After Sweden lost its position as a great power Russian pressure on Finland increased. Swedish government was often more interested in the western affairs and left the eastern defence into Finnish hands with inadequate funding. Emperor Alexander I promised Napoleon in Tilsit (1807) to persuade Sweden to join an anti-British alliance. When this failed, Russia invaded and eventually conquered whole of Finland in the strategically badly led war of 1808-1809 with Sweden leading the two parts of the Kingdom on separate ways. Russian forces attacked Finland February 21, 1808. Due to intelligence reports the army in Finland had been mobilized since three weeks, and initially the war went satisfactorily. But then the sea fortress of Sveaborg (Suomenlinna) surrendered without a fight in May, after less than two months of siege during which they did not receive any real information how the war was going. The educated classes in Finland (i.e. clergy, landowners and administrators - mostly Swedish speaking) seem to have been comfortable with the idea of Finland possibly becoming part of the Russian empire. The peasantry, however, was afraid of becoming enserfed as the Estonians had been. Thus, the peasantry organized guerilla units behind Russian lines, sometimes cooperating with the Swedish army, but with the winter the guerilla warfare stopped. The remaining Finnish troops surrendered by the spring, when the Russians had advanced into the Sweden proper and landed troops near Stockholm too, Sweden was convinced that it would better be in good relations with Russia. Sweden had to seek peace and in the Peace Treaty of Hamina in September 1809 the whole of Finland was joined to Russia. The peace was preceded by a revolution in Stockholm and the Diet in Porvoo in March, where the Estates of Finland declared their will to come under Russian rule. One of Napoleon's marshals, Bernadotte, became the heir to the thrown of Sweden in 1810, and his descendants rule Sweden to this day. After the defeat of Napoleon Sweden was compensated with Norway .
During the Swedish period, Finland was usually only a group of eastern provinces and not a national entity. When Russia annexed Finland in 1809 it became an autonomous Grand Duchy. Earlier lost eastern parts of Finland around Viipuri ("old Finland") were also returned in 1811, this brought the Finnish border near St.Petersburg. Much of the Swedish-era legislation was kept and self-rule granted. Some say that the old (Gustavian) tradition survived better in Finland than Sweden. Russian government may have wanted to experiment with reforms and it also wanted to create goodwill, as Finland might otherwise proven to be difficult to administer. All this and, what it may have seemed, the end of period of repeated wars Finland being a buffer between Sweden and Russia, made the transition from Sweden to Russian Empire for many people relatively easy to accept.

The Grand Duke was the Russian Emperor, whose representative in Finland was a Governor General. Finland's own highest governing body was the Senate, whose members were exclusively Finns. Matters pertaining to Finland were presented to the Emperor in St. Petersburg by the Finnish Minister Secretary of State. Thus, the administration of Finland was handled directly by the Emperor and the Russian authorities were therefore unable to interfere. Finns were, however, able to make careers inside the Russian administration and many served especially in the army, Finland gave Russia several generals and admirals. Two governors of Alaska were of Finnish origin before it was sold to the USA. The role of Czar as a constitutional monarch in Finland was much in contrast with his role in other parts of the Russian empire. Peaceful Finland was also able to keep the autonomy long whereas many others, like for example rebelling Poles, lost their bits of home-rule. Finland gained experience of co-existence with Russia and the loyalty of Finns was slowly shifted towards the Czar but with increasing sense of national identity and need for autonomy.

When Emperor Alexander I, Grand Duke of Finland in 1809-1825, gave Finland extensive autonomy he effectively created the Finnish state. The Lutheran Church retained its position, and so did Swedish as the official language. Helsinki was made the capital of Finland instead of Turku in 1812, and the University was also moved to Helsinki in 1828 after a severe fire in Turku. Kalevala , the Finnish national epic, was first published by Lцnnrot in 1835. The first Finnish railway, between Helsinki and Hдmeenlinna, was opened in 1862. A Language Decree issued in 1863 by Alexander II marked the beginning of the process through which Finnish became an official administrative language. At the beginning of the Russian rule the administration was largely taken care by the Finnish civil servants without a real mandate from the people, represented by the Diet that did not have meetings for few decades ("night of statehood"). The reasons for this may have been the reluctancy of the Czar and the will of the civil service to build the country without complicating parliament. Soon the need for new legislation and more effective representation of the estates became clear. The Diet convened in 1863 after a break of more than half a century, since then the Diet met regularly starting active legislative work in Finland. Furthermore, largely thanks to the important developer of Finnish society and state secretary of finance Johan Vilhelm Snellman (1806-1881), Finland got its own currency, Markka, in 1860. Economic development accelerated and business became less controlled. The Conscription Act of 1878 even gave Finland an army of its own, the country had several features of an independent nation. To sum up, the mid-19th century was generally a peaceful period for Finland except for minor incidents during the Crimean War (1854-56).

In contrast to the early peaceful progress as a Grand Duchy, the late 19th century marked the rising of Slavophilic thought and integration of the Russian empire implying hard times for the Finnish autonomy. Finns used mostly the methods of passive resistance but also violence occurred. A strong proponent of Russification, Governor General Bobrikov, was assassinated by a son of a Finnish senator in 1904. The first period of oppression (1899-1905), which for example closed down separate Finnish army and made the administration more open to Russians, ended soon after the Russian defeat in war against Japan. Also domestic problems forced the Russian government to appease Finns.

Two political factions emerged: the "Constitutionalists" (the Swedish Party and the Young Finnish Party), who were strongly against illegal enactments; and the "Compliers" (the Old Finnish Party), who were ready to appease in everything that did not, in their opinion, affect Finland's vital interest. Labour unions started to grow too, the general strike of 1905 was a strong expression of opinion. Also a Social Democratic party was born, they wrote a policy paper in 1903 demanding for several social changes. The peaceful period before the second era of oppression (1908-17) allowed Finland, fortunately, to develop its democracy creating unicameral right to vote for all adult citizens. Thus, granting also women full political rights, suffrage and eligibility to run for the Diet , as the first country in Europe in 1906; the Finnish administration got the first female Members of the Parliament in the world.

Finnish music, literature and arts in general rose to new heights by such persons as Jean Sibelius and Akseli Gallen-Kallela, and many others. In the early Olympic games Finland formed a separate team from Russia and gained more medals than the vastly larger empire. Moreover, peace and development further increased population growth and a wave of emigration to the USA and other distant countries followed. Industrialization started slowly, Finland remained fairly agrarian in comparison with western European countries despite the growth of forest industry and first steps in mining etc. During the 1910's the Russification development was abruptly intensified and the 1st World War shifted the attention to other events. Finnish nationalists began to plan partition of Finland from Russia and sent nearly 2000 men for training in the German army, the "Jдgers" (Jддkдrit) who fought their war in the Baltic front. Therefore, some Finns fought on both the Russian and German side, which caused some friction among the military officers after independence. Russian emperors as the Grand Dukes of the Grand Duchy of Finland
Alexander I (1809-25)
Nicholas I (1825-55)
Alexander II (1855-81)
Alexander III (1881-94)
Nicholas II (1894-1917)

Solemn Assurance by the Emperor Alexander in 1809 to respect constitutional rights of citizens in the newly acquired Grand Duchy of Finland.

Napoleon Bonaparte's Role in Finnish, Swedish and Russian Foreign Policy, 1801-1814 by Sarah Hale.

The Gracious Manifesto of the Imperial Majesty in 1899

History of the Helsinki Senate Square by Frank Hellstйn (Finfo)

Maps of Finland as part of Russia from FINFO

Travels in Finland in the 1870s - Illustrations from the book of the same name by Zachris Topelius (1818-1898), written by Joe Brady FINFO

"Serious, reserved and fond of a retired life."
- The Oxford Encyclopedia, 1828

"It would be difficult to find a town [Helsinki] of 80 000 inhabitants in England so clean, so bright, with such museums, libraries, and public buildings. Even Bedford is not as educational as Helsingfors, nor is Brighton so well served with social amusements, concerts and theatres."
- A.M.C. Clive-Bailey, Vignettes from Finland, or Twelve Months in Strawberry Land, 1895

Finnish currency: First markka note from 1860
(Source: Bank of Finland*)

Ainola (1904), home of composer Jean Sibelius
(Source: City of Jдrvenpдд*)

Aleksis Kivi (1834 - 1872)
The first significant professional writer in Finnish
(Source: National Board of Antiquities*)



Early Independence 1917-39
Finland was not directly involved in the World War I (1914-1918), although Russian troops were garrisoned in the country. In 1917 Russia plunged into the chaos of Revolution: Finland seized the opportunity on December 6, 1917, Parliament approved the declaration of independence drawn up by the Senate under the leadership of Pehr Evind Svinhufvud (1861-1944). Soviet Russia, Lenin and Stalin among the leaders, soon recognised the independence. Soviet leaders had high hopes for a successful revolution in Finland too and some 40,000 Russian soldiers remained in Finland. Worryingly at the same time, the breach between the parties of the left and the right had become hostile. At the end of January 1918, the leftwing parties staged a coup forcing the rightwing government to flee from Helsinki to Vaasa. The development was an unhappy mixture of freedom fight and revolutionary activism. The "Reds" wanted to create a socialistic Finland, possibly in union with emerging Soviet Russia.
The ensuing bitter Civil War between the "Red" militia in the south and "White" government, assisted by some Swedish and Norwegian volunteers, based in middle and northern parts of the country ended in May 1918 with victory for the government troops. "White" troops were led by General Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim (1867-1951), who had made an impressive career in the Russian army. The backbone of the "White" army consisted of few officers trained in the imperial Russia and the "Jдgers" who returned from Germany. The bulk of the armies consisted, however, of poorly trained and armed conscripts. A German infantry division and naval forces helped the "Whites" upon invitation by conquering Helsinki and some other coastal areas, but the decisive battle of Tampere was fought already earlier, and some Russian troops sided and aided the "Reds". At the dawn of independence Finland had a population of some 3,000,000, of which 30,000 perished in the civil war and related terror by both sides, more defeated "Reds" than "Whites" died (there still exists disagreement on what the war should be called: independence, rebellion, freedom, civil, or something else).

When the order was restored, prior to new elections, the planning for a new constitution and government began. First the idea of creating a Kingdom , like the other Nordic countries, found support in the "rump" Parliament. They chose Friedrich Karl, Prince of Hesse, the son-in-law of German Emperor Wilhelm II, to be the king "Vдinц I". In few weeks the collapse of Germany in the First World War made this project void reducing German influence on Finnish politics. The parties with republican orientation won the parliamentary elections in March 1919. Thus, Finland became a Republic in the summer of 1919; Kaarlo Juho Stеhlberg (1865-1952) was elected as the first President (1919-25). The breach between classes caused by the War was alleviated by conciliatory measures such as including the Social Democrats in the government; in 1926-1927 SDP formed a minority government. The land ownership was changed by a law in 1918 and 1922 ("Lex Kallio"), which made it possible for the tenants and small farmers to acquire more land.

Finland chose not to play active part in the Russian revolution, some domestic and foreign wishes for supporting the White Russian forces where swept aside, though voluntary troops participated in military campaigns in Eastern Karelia and helped to create independent Estonia. Soon, having tempered down bold thoughts of creating a greater Finland, the Peace of Dorpat (Tartto) was made with Russia in 1920, also a non-aggression pact with Soviet Union was signed in 1932. In the Peace Treaty, Finland, among other things, gave up territorial claims in Soviet Karelia, confirmed the rights to Petsamo (Petchenga) with nickel deposits at the Arctic coast and received a promise that Soviet Union will respect the rights of the Fenno-Ugrians in the neighbouring areas, which never became reality under Stalin's reign. (Remaining Ingrians have been allowed to migrate to Finland during the 1990's.) Friction with the Soviet regime continued, however, eg during the 1920's espionage activity was vivid in Finland. After the war Finland prospered and grouped with the other neutral Nordic countries. Also, German sympathies were notable, but not uncritical. Several politicians favored more the Western, Anglophile, orientation. The press had a critical tone towards both the development in Germany and Soviet Union.

Еland islands caused a major test for Finnish diplomacy. When Finland declared its independence the majority of the Swedish speaking population of the islands voted to join Sweden. During the Civil War the islanders saw in turn Russian, White, Swedish, Red and German troops. The Finnish government did not wish to see Еland to join Sweden, culturally there was much in common but historically the islands were close to Finland. The issue was addressed at the League of Nations, which peacefully solved the dispute in favour of Finland, but the islands got an extensive autonomy.

At domestic level, all kind of social activity was vivid, professional groups, political parties, sports enthusiasts, women, voluntary armed defence supporters and many others founded associations to further their interests and development. Fennoman movement was fairly strong, but Finland kept and still has both Finnish and Swedish as official languages. Many people with Swedish family name, however, changed their name into a Finnish one. In the early 1930's fascism emerged and the domestic Lapua-movement attempted a coup d'etat in 1932 ("Mдntsдlдn kapina"). Coup clearly failed and the movement was banned by using the laws the movement had been eager to push into force for banning the Communist Party and its followers earlier (1930). An extreme right party (IKL ), however, was formed but it never gained widespread support and Finnish fascism remained a marginal phenomenon. A peculiar part of the early extreme right activity was to kidnap and transport opposing politicians to the Soviet border ("kyyditykset"). Social Democratic Party, the Conservatives, the Agrarian Party and the Swedish People's Party played the key roles in political life. Communists stayed mostly underground, largely led from Moscow, during the inter war period.

The depression of 1930's hit also Finland, but the two decades after the independence were generally good time and the nation learned to be a democratic independent nation among nations. Moreover, agriculture dominated economy started to industrialize faster; agriculture continued to be the backbone of the economy but the lumber industry led the growth and development, and its success fuelled progress in other sectors. Exports of forest industry products to UK and other countries grew bringing more capital into the country; mining and stronger capital intensive metal industries emerged. Migration from the countryside to towns and abroad continued. Prohibition law (1919-32) banning the consumption of alcohol was also tried and failed in Finland. Regents during the first years of independence
Pehr Evind Svinhufvud (1918)
Carl Gustav Emil Mannerheim (1918-19)

Presidents of the republic of Finland

Kaarlo Juho Stеhlberg (1919-25)
Lauri Kristian Relander (1925-31)
Pehr Evind Svinhufvud (1931-37)
Kyцsti Kallio (1937-40)
Risto Heikki Ryti (1940-44)
Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim (1944-46)
Juho Kusti Paasikivi (1946-56)
Urho Kaleva Kekkonen (1956-81)
Mauno Henrik Koivisto (1982-94)
Martti Oiva Kalevi Ahtisaari (1994-2000)
Tarja Kaarina Halonen (2000- )

"Like a chasm runs the border.
In front, Asia, the East;
In back, Europe, the West:
Like a sentry, I stand guard."
- Uuno Kailas, in a poem

"Countries are like people: by their very existence they exalt or deflate the opinions one would like to have of oneself. When I return from Finland, I feel younger and livelier; I make great plans, I like many things in the world and, what is more, I like myself a little better."
- Georges Duhamel, Chant du Nord, 1929

"White general" C.G.E. Mannerheim in 1918.
(Source: University of Tampere*)

A stamp for "the Flying Finn" Paavo Nurmi, maybe the best runner ever, winning 3000 m in the Olympic games in Paris in 1924
(Source: Stampville - Finland Post Ltd*)

Declaration of independence in Finnish

Events of 1918 in Finnish

An essay on the Civil war in English from the US Congress Library

Brief introduction to the Finnish democratical development during the 20th century from FINFO

Before the War: Finland, Stalin and Germany in 1930s by Timo Vihavainen

Maps of Independent Finland from FINFO

The Many Karelias- The Karelian question in Finnish history by Pekka Nevalainen (Finfo)



Three Finnish Wars of WWII 1939-45
Finland fought three interconnected wars during the Second World War. First was the "Winter War" (1939-40) against Soviet Union (hereafter SU) after its aggression, second "Continuation War" (1941-44) alongside Germany against SU in attempt to reconquer and secure the eastern areas, and third "Lapland War" (1944-45) against Germany to drive its forces out of northern Finland. The WW II had an important impact on the development of Finland as the most of the world.
Finnish troops were better prepared for harsh Winter conditions and tactically very capable during the Winter War (1939-40); but short of armament and ammunition, and all but infinitely outnumbered.
(Source: Matti Yrjцlд*)
Finnish army stopped and counter-attacked the Soviet invasion during the summer 1944 in Tali-Ihantala and other places too, many Soviet tanks were destroyed using modern German antitank weapons - Winter War Molotov's cocktail had become nearly obsolete against new armor.
(Source: Matti Yrjцlд*)
In the spring of 1938, a Soviet diplomat approached the Finnish foreign minister, with the intent of opening secret discussions to “improve relations” between the two nations in light of the worsening international situation. Officially Soviets mainly demanded a "buffer zone" at the Karelian Isthmus in exchange for some forested land further north, naval bases and acceptance of Soviet military "aid" to protect Leningrad (St.Petersburg) from attack via (or by) Finland. Leningrad was located near the Finnish border and despite the repeated Finnish promises of strict neutrality (a concept which Stalin never seemed to really value or understand) and Finnish government's willingness to minor concessions Soviets increased the pressure. The Soviet attitude was hostile and the offers or demands were considered to be impossible to meet by the Finnish side; neutrality, sovereignty and credibility were not to be sacrificed in exchange for (temporarily) lifted pressure. Finland's fate was sealed by the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact between Soviet Union and Germany in August 1939, and especially by its secret division of Europe into Soviet and German interest spheres. In north Soviet sphere included eastern Poland, Baltic states and Finland.
All but Finland had de facto fallen, Baltic countries kept nominal independence till 1940, by the late autumn 1939. Thus, a year and half later, after multiple rounds of negotiations in Helsinki and Moscow, four Soviet armies attacked Finland on November 30, 1939 at 06.50 AM without a declaration of war, most likely to occupy Finland and replace the Finnish government with a puppet regime. This "Terijoki government", led by O-W Kuusinen, was installed as soon as Red Army held some Finnish border soil. Stalin thought that the Finnish workers and leftists would join the Soviets, which was a mistake as most of the nation stood united behind sovereignty, the "spirit of the Winter War" was born. The workers' newspaper Sosialisti (The Socialist) called the Terijoki government "an Asiatic joke". Western democracies gasped and appalled but were unable to offer much else than sympathy, few volunteers helped the Finnish army, and expel SU from the League of Nations. Sweden agreed to take care of a large number of Finnish children as refugees. Governments of France and UK slowly planned an operation to send a small force to help Finland against SU. The real purpose of the troops would probably have been to cut the shipping of iron ore from Northern Sweden to Germany, on the excuse of maintaining communications from Finland to Norwegian ports, but Norway and Sweden denied the right to transit. Had the plan been implemented UK and SU might have ended fighting each other instead of being allied. Germany looked away, even stopped arms shipments from Italy to Finland, as Hitler and Ribbentrop had given SU rights to occupy Finland.

Stalin and Soviet generals expected the Red Army to be in Helsinki in few weeks, and the Soviet troops made initially good progress due to surprise, though there was some intelligence information on the Red army movements and defensive preparations too, and the sheer volume of the attack. Soviet forces had been given orders not to cross the border to Sweden once they had marched through Finland. However, to world's surprise, the Soviet attack was stalled and in many places thrown back with great casualties. Encirclement, motti, battles were fought along the few roads leading from the long Finnish border to the inland: whole Soviet divisions were wiped out and their equipment captured adding significant help to the otherwise ill-equipped Finnish armed forces. Main contributors to these victories were the fighting spirit of the Finnish troops and the skillful tactics in the frozen forests on the road-bound attackers, and Soviet incompetence. Consequently, Hitler and many German generals thought that beating the red army was not such a difficult task, a costly mistake; SU rewrote its infantry doctrine based on the Winter War experience and later Wehrmacht learned to know the better educated "Generals of January and February".

After Finland had beaten the first attacks Soviet Union changed the commanders leading the attack as well as tactics. Turning to their absolute superiority in air power, artillery and tanks and sheer manpower (over 1,000,000 men from Arctic to Gulf of Finland, of which about 600,000 on the Karelian Isthmus) the new attack in February gradually wore down the thin Finnish defense on the Karelian isthmus forcing the defenders to withdraw. On the Karelian isthmus, along the famous Mannerheim line, the fighting resembled more of the First World War massive frontal attacks than the mobile encirclement battles fought elsewhere on the fronts. Lack of artillery, ammunitions and reserves made the breaching of the main defensive line inevitable. Meanwhile, SU feared an intervention by the western democracies and wanted to end the humiliating war, Finland was just barely able to hold the front while renewed peace negotiations went on. Thus, Stalin abandoned the puppet government at Terijoki. Possible Western military aid seemed to come too late and be too little to change anything. Some newer, still controversial, evidence seems to indicate that few persons in Finnish and German governments had secret discussions already in 1940; the Germans urged Finns to make peace now so that they could later get their pay-back with interest. The Winter War had also a wide media coverage and one of the first real war press rooms for international correspondents. Soviet Union got plenty of bad publicity.

In March Finland decided to accept the heavy peace rules dictated by SU, Finland lost one-tenth of its territory, including Viipuri (Vyborg) and Hanko as a rented base for Soviet navy, among other things but kept its independence. Some important ones of the pre-war Soviet demands, like a commitment to accept Soviet military "aid", were not forced

, , - 2000-08-03 14:53:41 - host: txmac27.pc.helsinki.fi (128.214.19.84)


A Web History of Finland
Up to Y2K
by Pasi Kuoppamдki


Edition 2.2 (2000) likely to include few omissions and mistakes.
A Web History of Finland
Up to Y2K
by Pasi Kuoppamдki


Edition 2.2 (2000) likely to include few omissions and mistakes.



[Foreword ]
[Other resources and literature]

[History by Chronological Order]
Pre-history before 1100 A.D.
From Viking Era under the Swedish Rule 1100-1500
From a Borderland to a Part of a Great Power 1500-1700
Rising Russia and National Identity 1700-1809
Russian Rule 1809-1917
Early Independence 1917-39
Three Finnish Wars of WWII 1939-45
Post-war Era since 1945



Current Map of Finland
(Source: CIA World Factbook)
Search the web history page.




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Foreword
This page is a modest attempt to help foreign readers, and possibly Finnish too, to learn basic Finnish history. There exists few other attempts too, but I hope this will provide an integrated story with both actual history and relevant links. It has evolved around my non-professional historical perspective, history is one of my favorite hobbies. I have utilized other sources on the web, suitable links are provided, and literacy to produce a concise but comprehensive Finnish history, possibly letting my own interests show in the composition. I've been critical to source information but further caution may be needed especially behind the links; ordinary mistakes, personal views and opinions may blur the writings. Moreover, I've tried to stick to well known facts but the facts need sometimes a little uncertain glue in between. Also, some names may not have their correct English form. Thus, absolute correctness of all information is not guaranteed. All written is not true and all trues are not written. I thank all the persons and institutions who helped to make this page possible. The text can be linked to and quoted as long as the reference is given. The pictures on this page cannot be further used without the permission of the original source*. Usual disclaimer applies, i.e. author carries responsibility on the opinions presented on this page. Feedback is welcome and I hope the page will help to appreciate the facts and lessons of history. Enjoy!

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History by Chronological Order
I've chosen to present the actual history in the order it has happened rather than by issues. The link farm at the end of the page will hopefully provide an easier approach to more focused topics.

A brief characterization on Finland and a simplified timeline for starters
Finland is a northern country that has been blessed with a harsh but beautiful landscape and a difficult geopolitical position. Long winters, endless evergreen forests, thousands of lakes and the Baltic Sea have developed the character of the Finnish people. Genetically, Finns are rather close to northern Germanic people, having a slight Siberian flavor. Finns have a peculiar language of their own with several dialects, a minority speaks Swedish. Geographically, Finland is on the far northern periphery of Europe, often left out of the maps of Europe. Geo-politically, larger neighboring nations in West and East, Sweden and Russia, have for centuries dominated the development of Finland and drawn her into innumerable wars. Under these circumstances, Finns have stoically withstood the storms and with resolution developed the nation into a democratic country with a high living standard.


Around 8000 B.C.: people arrive in Finland.
4000 B.C. - 1100 A.D.: Finns form tribes and inhabit larger parts of the country.
1100 - 1350: Sweden and Novgorod (Russia) compete over Finland. Finns are divided in their preferences. Most of the area becomes part of Swedish kingdom. Christianity spreads from the West and the East.
1350 - 1809: Finland is an integral part of Sweden with some own traditions.
1809 - 1917: Finland is annexed by Russia as an autonomous Grand Duchy.
1917 - 1918: Finland becomes an independent republic and fights a bitter civil war.
1939 - 1945: Finland fights two wars against Soviet Union, one against Germany, and remains an independent democratic market economy, but Soviet Union takes areas in Karelia.
1995: Finland joins the European Union
Pre-history before 1100 A.D.
Fairly little is known on the origins of the Finns. Finland as a socio-political entity did hardly exist before the 14th century, some would say Finland was created only in 1809 when Finland became a Grand Duchy in Russian Empire. (Hereafter Finland and Finns will often be used interchangeably, even if early Finland was just an area without strong common identity.) What is known is that the ancestors of today's Finns consisted of different tribes like Karelians, Tavastians and "proper" Finns, who lived in the area that at that time was known as "Finland" in the South-Western part of the country; these tribes have given their names and some characteristics also for some 21st century provinces. Estonians on the southern side of the Gulf of Finland were and are a strongly related nation, but they developed a separate identity. Also few other Finno-Ugrian nationalities share the roots. Later, in the Middle Ages, the country was commonly called Цsterlandet ("Eastland") or Finland, and the South-Western part became Finland Proper (Varsinais-Suomi in Finnish). Finns themselves call the country "Suomi", Finland is the name used in most languages.
Until recently it has been thought that the first people did not arrive to Finland until just over 10,000 years ago. The established view had to be reassessed, however, in 1996 when stones worked by the human hand possibly as early as the lower Palaeolithic period (over 100,000 years ago) were discovered in a cave, Susiluola ('Wolf cave'). Research continues. Speakers of early forms of Finnish, part of Finno-Ugric language family, are believed to have lived in Finland for 6,000 years. Few earlier settlers were of unknown descent, but the area (excluding the new findings from the Wolf cave) became inhabitable only after the end of the last big Ice Age some 8,000 years B.C. Archaeological finds of wood objects from east of the Ural mountains indicate that these people may have belonged to a hunting culture moving over very wide areas. One of the oldest items is a skid of a sledge dating back to 6900 B.C. Genetically Finns are much closer to western European Germanic and also Baltic people than Asiatic people, though a part of the genetical features are common with Siberian people. Large areas in northern Europe may have been populated by Fenno-Ugrian tribes in the pre-historic era. Sбmis, the indigenous people of northern Finland, and Finns possibly split into distinct cultures some 6,000 years ago creating different languages as well, but the relation is not clear at all. Genetically current Sбmis and Finns are different. An old theory claimed that Finns migrated from areas between the Ural mountains and the River Volga, but this theory is doubtful for the lack of physical evidence. Later, Baltic Indo- European immigrants settled the coast merging with the native Comb-Ceramic culture and due to cultural exchange animal husbandry was introduced about 4,500 years ago.

Approximately 2,000 years ago the southern and western coasts were inhabited by people in close cultural contact with Scandinavia, but the inland kept closer contacts to the East. Thus, some cultural differentiation between the geographically separated groups may have occurred. "Roman Iron Age" (1-400 A.D.) evidence implies that a Baltic sea-farer culture connected estuaries at Southern shores of the Baltic Sea with Finland, Estonia and Sweden. Fur was the major export good of that time. Settlement was concentrated in villages, while social development appears to have been fairly advanced in other ways as well. Rich graveyards from that period have been found and coastal cultural influence spread inland to Tavastia. Several layers of folklore reflect the cultural interaction between three ecological regions: the Arctic, the Woodland and the Coastal Lowlands. Еland (Ahvenanmaa in Finnish) was colonized by people from what is currently known as Sweden and has remained culturally Swedish ever since. During the late first millennium the Western Finnish culture spread its influence to Karelia in eastern Finland, around Lake Ladoga, where an independent culture arose. A Roman historian Tacitus mentions miserable and poor "Fenni" in "Germania" in A.D. 98 but his description does not fit the historical knowledge about Finns.

During Viking age the three above mentioned distinct Finnish cultures can be identified: Karjala ( Karelia ), Hдme (Tavastia/Tavastland) covering the southern lake-area and Varsinais-Suomi (Finland proper) at the south-western coast. It is believed that these tribes had an administrative system with governors (or "kings") comparable to those among Germanic tribes, and local councils where free men discussed common matters. Some even believe that there was a united Finnish "kingdom", e.g. some Scandinavian sagas mention " Finnish kings" but the theory remains very questionable. Vikings sailed the Finnish coast on their way to east but did not manage to get permanent power in Finland, though Viking sagas mention raids into the Finnish inland. Remains of local "hill castles" for defensive purposes have been found from that era. Finns probably did not launch Viking type of raids outside the Baltic. Some revenge raids against the Vikings and also Novgorod were made though; as late as in 1187 Karelians and Estonians sailed, and plundered and burned the main city of Sweden, Sigtuna . There exists also some evidence indicating that Finns may have been actively participating in the Swedish voyages to Russia, but nothing certain is known. The word "Rus" for Russia may derive from Ruotsi, the Finnish name for Sweden.

The exchange of goods and ideas between the coastal inhabitants and Germanic tribes in Scandinavia was active. Vikings probably settled also at Finnish, often not habited, shores and estuaries, established families with Finns and merged with the native population's gene pool. Some Finnish and Viking trading posts have been found, e.g. the town of Staraja Ladoga in Karelia was a Viking stronghold. Al Idris, the geographist of the Norman king of Sicily mentions Tavastland first time in 1154. Valuable material on the early history was rare to begin with. Much has been destroyed for example in fires of libraries. All in all, too much remains unknown about the pre-Swedish history of Finland. The prehistory of Finland in a nutshell by Pirjo Uino (Finfo)
Ancient Finnish religion by Juha Pentikдinen (Finfo)

Introduction to Kalevala - the Finnish national epic by Anneli Asplund (Finfo)

Viking network

The prehistory of Finland with lots of graphics

Where do the Finns come from? by Christian Carpelan (Finfo)

Origin of the Finnish People in the Light of Science and Mythology - a partisan view on the origin and prehistory of Finns

Typical comb-ceramic bowl
(Source: University of Helsinki*)


From Viking Era under the Swedish Rule 1100-1500
During the early 12th century, Finland was almost a political vacuum, though the separate tribes existed, and interesting to its neighbors Sweden and Novgorod (Russian). Also Denmark was interested in areas at the Gulf of Finland but with little success, except in Estonia which was under Danish rule for some time. Moreover, the Catholic and Greek Orthodox Churches wanted to spread their faith into Finland, using also the power of sword if necessary, though some Finns had already adopted Christianity in peaceful ways. Sweden, where a more integrated nation state had emerged earlier due to closer contacts with central Europe, was more successful in its military operations and "crusades" (1155, 1238 or 1949 and 1293) to different parts of Finland. According to a legend, Nicholas Breakspear, an English Cardinal who became Pope Adrian IV, encouraged the Swedish King Eric to cross the sea with a strong force. This so-called First Crusade to Finland, launched by Swedes and led by the English Bishop Henry and the King Erik, was probably made in 1155. Groups of Finns were allied with the Swedes at that point already, Finns were divided. Some Swedish speaking population probably already existed at the Finnish coasts, too. Some evidence indicates that the "crusades" could have been mainly military attacks by the allied Swedes and Finns against other Finns and Novgorod. According to legends, Bishop Henry was killed within a year and subsequently became the patron saint of Turku and Finland. A papal bull (1171 or 1172) proposed that the Swedes hold Finland in subjection with permanent garrisons. The bull also claims that some Finns have been treacherous by asking military help against Novgorod in exchange for their conversion to Catholicism and abandoning the faith after the threat has been abolished. In any case, the Greek Orthodox Church extended its influence from Novgorod to Karelia, where a mass baptization was executed in 1227, and Tavastia, which was still more independent revenging the Novgorodian raids in 1228, causing a clash with the Catholic side.
Bishop Thomas (1220-45) extended the Finnish Catholic diocese to Tavastia, probably with armed assistance; a "pagan" rebellion followed (the timing of the 2nd or "Tavastian" Crusade is uncertain, some sources place it in 1238 and others beyond the death of Thomas in 1249). Fairly soon, the rebellion was defeated by forces loyal to Catholic Sweden. Sweden's de facto head Earl Birger (1248-66) strengthened the Swedish power in Tavastia, also a castle was built in Hдmeenlinna. The alliance between Finns and Swedes became more evident, they made a military expedition, led by Thomas, against Novgorod in 1240, but lost the final battle at river Neva (the leader of Novgorod became subsequently Alexander Nevski). Novgorodians also made few raids to Finland and burned the Cathedral of Turku. 3rd Crusade was made to Karelia in 1293 and a castle was built in Viipuri (Vyborg) to protect the eastern border; Karelia became more divided causing trouble later ion. Population estimates for this time are extremely difficult to make, but it was still extremely sparse and there may have been only some 50,000 Finns.

The peace treaty of Noteburg (Pдhkinдsaari) in 1323 between Sweden and Novgorod assigned only Eastern Finland to Novgorod, the borders of Finland as a part of Sweden were defined first time by a treaty. The current mainland of Finland, western and southern parts, were tied to Sweden and the Western European cultural sphere, while eastern Finland, Karelia, became more closely linked to the Russo-Orthodox world; Finns shared the fortunes and misfortunes, not always equally, of Sweden for the next some 500 years till 1809. Consequently, Finland has remained between East and West ever since searching for its own, largely west oriented, identity.

Swedish domination meant that Swedish legal and social systems rooted in Finland. Central European type of Feudalism was not part of the system and the Finnish peasants were never serfs; they always retained their personal freedom. The Swedish system was probably not in any great contrast to the earlier traditions, except for the religion, taxation and unity of the state with Swedish as the high-level administrative language. Native Finns held important positions in the administration, weak central government and internal disputes in Sweden made the local administration powerful. Starting from the latter part of the thirteenth century the crown slowly gained a greater authority with the introduction of royal castles, establishment of temporal nobility and provincial administration. Most important town during the Swedish period in Finland was Turku, founded in the middle of the 13th century; Turku (Еbo in Swedish) was also the Bishop's seat. The first native Bishop was appointed in 1291.

Consolidation of Finland as an integral part of the Swedish Kingdom continued, in 1362 Finns were given the right to send representatives to the election of the King in Sweden, and after the period of Kalmar Union between the Scandinavian kingdoms in the 16th century this right was extended to include representation in the Swedish Diet. The consequent development could be described as Sweden and Finland growing to be an actual uniform country together, originally the country was divided into Gцta, Svea and Finland. Svea and Gцta had been separate kingdoms early in the Middle Ages but then their difference slowly disappeared. A name Sweden was used of all of them and later Skеne (Scania) grew to the same connection from the areas taken from Denmark. The division was sometimes useful though, e.g. when the country was divided into Gцta's, Svea's and Finland's courts of appeal. Finland was occasionally considered to be a grand duchy to lift the Swedish king's prestige (officially after 1581), also geographers and historians made the distinction. Finnish language survived but was not yet developed into a real "cultural language".

The Union of Kalmar (1397-1521/23) between Nordic countries, Denmark as the dominant member, allowed Finnish nobility to act rather freely, eg during the 1460's Tott brothers ruled Finland very independently like regents. The ruling upper class of Finland was very small and disintegrated, however. The Catholic Church and powerful Bishops played an important role too. The clergy and few others got their higher education often from the University of Paris, two of the Rectors were from Finland during the 14th and 15th century, and later from German and Swedish universities. King Kristoffer developed legislation (1442), which led to the development of rural jurisdictional districts. Trade increased and foreign merchants settled in bigger Finnish towns, Hanseatic League was a powerful organization in Finland too. Finns exported at least furs and fish. Swedes rebelled few times with varying success against harsh Danish rule; the unrest spread also to Finland in smaller scale and the Union became less popular. Novgorod was defeated by growing Moscow (Russia) in 1471 and finally annexed in 1478, subsequently a stronger pressure on Finland re-emerged from the East. A famous incident took place when the Castle of Viipuri was sieged in 1495, under Ivan III of Moscow who had allied with Danes. The situation of the defenders looked hopeless, but they were saved by the mysterious "Viborg blast", a big explosion which scared off the Russians because they saw a St. Andrew's cross in the sky.

Population grew more or less steadily during the 15th and 16th century, possibly reaching half a million inhabitants by the 17th century. Life was simple for the peasantry. Ordinary meals consisted of bread, dry or salted fish and water or sour milk for drink. Clothes were made of flax or wool, hemp and nettle were also used. Hard life in the wide forests with infrequent wars taught both the men and women to be rather independent and resourceful. Consequently, also lured by tax relief incentives, people slowly moved into the free inland areas, where new "tribes" or provinces emerged, two important ones were Savo (Savolax) east of Tavastia and Pohjanmaa (Ostrobotnia) at the western coastal planes; even today one can find some traces of the East-West divide in architecture and cultivation history, slash and burn method maintained long its place in the Eastern Finland. Swedish regents and Kings before the Vasas
1130-1156 Sverker
1150-1160 Erik den helige
1160-1167 Karl Sverkersson
1167-1195 Knut Eriksson
1195-1208 Sverker Karlsson
1208-1216 Erik Knutsson
1216-1222 Johan Sverkersson
1222-1229 Erik Eriksson
1229-1234 Knut Holmgersson Lеnge
1234-1249 Erik Eriksson Lдspe och Halte

Folkungas:
1250-1266 Birger Jarl
1250-1275 Valdemar Birgersson
1275-1290 Magnus Birgersson Ladulеs
1290-1318 Birger Magnusson
1319-1364 Magnus Eriksson

Mecklenburgs:
1364-1389 Albrekt af Mecklenburg

Unions of Kalmar regents:
1389-1412 Margareta
1396-1439 Erik af Pommern
1436-1440 Karl Knutsson
1440-1448 Kristoffer III af Bayern
1457-1464 Kristian I
1470-1497 Sten Sture
1497-1501 Johan II (Hans)
1501-1503 Sten Sture
1504-1512 Svante Nilsson Sture
1512-1520 Sten Sture d.y.
1520-1522 Kristian II

Castle of Turku, the first real stronghold of Swedish power in Finland. Building was started app 1280.
(Source: City of Turku*)

Olavinlinna castle, a fortress in Savo against Russia, built (1475-) during the introduction of effective fire arms.
(Source: National Board of Antiquities*)

12th century events, 13th century events, 14th century events and 15th century events from Agricola network in Finnish

Pope Innocentius IV's Letter of Protection to Confessors of Christian Faith in Finland 1249

An essay on the origins of Swedish-Finns

Map of Sweden(-Finland) during the 14th century.

The crusade period 1025-1300

"The Finns are accustomed to skiing as fast as they wish, so that it is said that now they are close by and soon again they are far away. As soon as they have inflicted damage on the enemy, they rush away as swiftly as they came."
- Saxo Grammaticus: Gesta Danorum, 13th century

Rising Sweden - From a Borderland to a Part of a Great Power 1500-1700
The aftermath of the dissolution of Kalmar Union between Nordic Kingdoms, which had become beset by conflict between the aristocrats and civil unrest due to hard taxation and unjust administration, in 1523 led to the birth of more expansionist Sweden, with Finland as the eastern half. Danes were driven out of Finland with joint efforts of Finns and Swedes. Gustaf Vasa, the new King (1521-60), started Lutheran reformation in the early 16th century in Sweden and Finland (1527), and the Catholic Church consequently lost out to the Lutheran faith as it was declared to be the State religion. King gained control over much of the property of the Church. The central government around the King strengthened and modernized along lines learned from German states, a hereditary monarchy was introduced in 1544. The changes set in motion also a great rise in Finnish-language culture. Viipuri was established as Finland's second bishopric beside Turku in 1554. New Testament was translated into Finnish in 1548 by Mikael Agricola (1510-1557), the Bishop of Turku, who brought the Reformation to Finland and created written Finnish. The entire Bible was first translated into Finnish in 1642. During the 16th century Finland also became a prioritized part of the realm. The Vasa princes were even taught Finnish, and the Finnish nobility made great careers in the civil service and the army. During a war (1555-1557) against Ivan IV the Terrible of Russia, south-western part of Finland was given as a Duchy to the future King John (Johan) III, whose Renaissance court in Turku Castle brought some glory to the small town. Finnish language was widely used in the administration. Helsinki was founded in 1550 as a new trading post in southern Finland and a competitor to Tallinn, Hansa city on the opposite shore of the Gulf of Finland in Estonia. Finland often took alone care of the Eastern cardinal point as the "proper Swedes" stood against the Danes.
Repeated wars against Russia extended the areas in the east, but keeping up military readiness was hard for the heavily taxed Finnish peasantry. Peace of Teusina (1595), also recognising Swedish rule over northern Estonia, ended a 25 years long war but military service continued. Peasants had to support large army formations. Consequently, a civil uprising called the " nuijasota " (Cudgel War) (1596-97) was fought against the military demands and local nobility, the uprising was eventually suppressed hard. The rebels gathered troops in Pohjanmaa (Ostrobothnia) and inner Finland, southernmost parts of the country remained calm, partly due to more tight government control. The war happened simultaneously with and catalyzed by the struggle for the thrown of Sweden between King Sigismund and his uncle Duke Karl, catholic Sigismund was also King of Poland. Sigismund's Polish connection could have been valuable for Finland as an ally against Russia and for trade. Thus, the Finnish nobility led by Klaus Fleming, governor of Finland and marshal of the Swedish army, largely took the side of the King Sigismund. Therefore, their opponent Duke Karl encouraged the discontented Finnish peasantry into an open revolt. Fleming was also preparing an army to invade Sweden proper, but his health was not too good. Duke Karl was backed by the majority of nobility, the Protestant Church and Diet in Sweden. Fleming was not very popular among the Swedish aristocracy even if he had been a succeful general, admiral and administrator. Consequently, Karl's victory in Sweden, Sigismund was dethroned in 1598, and Fleming's premature death led to punitive measures against the weakened Finnish nobility. Soon, many of the government officials in Finland were replaced by Swedes, who mostly were unable to speak Finnish. Thus, first the rebelling Finnish peasantry was punished by the local nobles and then the Finnish aristocracy was punished for opposing the "usurper" Duke Karl.

Gustaf II Adolf, possibly the internationally best known Swedish King, triumphantly led Sweden to the Thirty years' war (1618-48). The army consisted originally largely of native Swedes and Finns with only some mercenaries fighting as far south as Bavaria. The campaign probably saved the Lutheran faith in northern Germany, but it also caused terrible damage and suffering long remembered. The Finnish cavalry, known as hakkapeliittas, fought successfully and spread fear among the Catholic Imperial troops who're used to more old-fashioned and rigid warfare. There is evidence that the ordinary Central Europeans made a difference between Swedish and Finnish troops, both native to the Swedish kingdom, during the war. The following territorial conquests from Denmark, Russia and German states raised Sweden(-Finland) to a great power status for a hundred years. Sweden was a small but efficient country and seized the opportunities. Thus, Sweden extended its realm around the Baltic and managed, due to the weakness of Russia, to push the Finnish border further east in Karelia and the Baltics; during the Russian " time of troubles" at the beginning of 17th century Jacob de la Gardie ("Lazy Jaakko" for his Finnish soldiers) occupied Moscow, in support of Vasili Shuiskii as the Czar against competitors, for a while and also ruled in Novgorod before the new Czar from Romanov family was chosen and a peace was made. Wars had, however, devastated areas in Karelia. Many Orthodox Christian Karelians emigrated to the Tver region near Moscow. Migration between Sweden and Finland was also continuous, some Finns formed communities in Sweden-proper. Sweden had also a short-lived, partly Finnish populated, colony called New Sweden, in the Delaware region in Northern America.

With the consolidation of the administration in Stockholm, uniform Swedish rule was extended to Finland during the 17th century. Accordingly, Sweden-Swedes were often appointed to high offices in Finland, which strengthened the position of the Swedish language in Finland on the cost of native Finnish culture. Also, the incidents of the earlier "Cudgel War" had not helped the Finnish upper class aspirations for better position within the Kingdom. In the army, however, Finns continued to make a significant contribution. It is also worth to note that the new areas in the East were "won lands" and for long time did not have the same rights as the rest of Finland in Swedish Kingdom. Aristocrats, who had been successful leaders in wars and administration, received large land estates in Sweden and Finland, which posed a threat to the freedom of the peasantry. First aristocracy won privileges and power also from the King, later high civil servants (often members of aristocracy) gained power. Finally, during the latter part of 17th century, the "Reduction" diminished the land holdings and power of aristocracy and benefited farmers to some extent. Hard military service and famines (1696-98) caused by disastrous weather conditions, during the temporarily deteriorated climate of the "little ice age", decreased the population significantly. Moreover, restrictions on tar and other trade for the benefit of Stockholm made the commercial development in Finland slow. Wars continued, e.g. while Sweden engaged Denmark, Russians attacked in 1656-58 to free the Orthodox Christians from the Swedish rule ("War of Rupture", "ruptuurisota") and had to be repulsed by minor native forces. As a result, more Orthodox Christian Karelians fled to Russia, Lutheranism strengthened its position in Finnish Karelia and Ingria (a small Baltic-Finnic province at the bottom of the Gulf of Finland). Therefore, being part of a great power was not always prosperous time for Finland, the people paid a high price for being part of a great power. Count Peter Brahe, however, as the general governor (1637-40, 1648-54) significantly helped to develop Finland and the infrastructure. New towns were founded and postal system established. Moreover, the Academy of Turku was founded in 1640 creating the foundation for Finnish university education. First paper mill began operations in Finland in 1667. Swedish Kings from Gustaf Vasa till the dissolution of Sweden(-Finland) 1809
1521-1560 Gustaf I Vasa
1560-1568 Erik XIV (son of Gustaf Vasa)
1568-1592 Johan III (son of Gustaf Vasa)
1592-1599 Sigismund (son of Johan III)
1599-1611 Karl IX (son of Gustaf Vasa)
1611-1632 Gustaf II Adolf (son of Karl IX)
1632-1654 Kristina
1654-1660 Karl X Gustaf
1660-1697 Karl XI
1697-1718 Karl XII
1718-1720 Ulrica Elenora
1720-1751 Fredrik I
1751-1771 Adolf Fredrik
1771-1792 Gustaf III
1792-1809 Gustaf IV

Financial Management at Hдme Castle in the Mid-sixteenth Century (from 1539 to about 1570) by Anna-Maria Vilkuna

Peace treaty of Teusina (Tдyssinд) in 1595 between Sweden and Russia

16th century events and 17th century events from Agricola network in Finnish

Swedish war history - a timeline in Swedish

History of firearms in Sweden(-Finland)

Some history of Ingria between Finland and Russia

The Salary for The Sin is Death - Witchcraft in Finland by Heikkinen, Kervinen and Nenonen.

Medieval Castles of Finland from FINFO

Maps of Finland as part of Sweden from FINFO

"The Finnish people are so experienced in the shipwrightґs craft that they can build vessels which are as strong and durable, yes, perhaps even better than those which I have seen built by the Venetians with their brilliant gifts in this field."
- Olaus Magnus, Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus, 1555

"Finlande is called a fayre countrye, because it is more pleasanter than Swecia. Much wine is transported thither, out of Spayne, by the sea Balthic, which people of the Countrye much desireth, to exhillerat their myndes...The Finnons have continual warres wyth the Muscovites in the arm or bosome of the sea Finnonicus: using in Summer the ayde of Shyppes, and in Wynther they combat upon Ise ..."
- George North, 1561

Mikael Agricola (1510-57)
Lutheran reformist and linguist
(Source: National Board of Antiquities*)

Gustaf II Adolf (King 1611-32)
"Lion of the North"
(Source: National Board of Antiquities*)


Louhisaari Manor, built 1655. Home of Fleming and later Mannerheim family.
(Source: National Board of Antiquities*)




Later Swedish Rule - Rising Russia and National Identity 1700-1809
Peter the Great reformed and developed Russia into a great power to reckon with. Russia wanted to expand and gain an access to the Baltic Sea. A clash with Sweden was inevitable. In 1700 Denmark, Poland, Saxony and Russia declared war on Sweden starting the Great Northern War (1700-1721). Young King Karl XII led, after magnificent victories elsewhere (he won a much larger Russian army at Narva in 1700, forced the Danes to peace, defeated the Saxony, won and dethroned the Polish king in 1706), the army deep into Russia and Ukraine where the loss in the Battle of Poltava in 1709 marked the beginning of the end of great power period. Sweden had reached the limit of its strength by fighting half of Europe at the same time and by entering the Russian winter. A plague killed two thirds of the population of Helsinki, which was still only a small town, in 1710. Because Sweden was in war with several countries Finland had to send some 60,000 soldiers out of the earlier famine beaten population of 300,-400,000 to fight all over Baltic rim and Russia, only around 10,000 survived intact to defend Finland. In total, Sweden lost some 200,000 soldiers in combat, decease, and famines out of population around 2 millions. Consequently, Russia briefly occupied most of Finland, the period known as "great wrath" (1713-21). Occupying Russian troops behaved originally relentlessly, later better, many nobles and wealthy people fled to western Sweden not to return. Some Finns fought the Russians as guerillas (they were called as "kivekkддt" after one leader from Ingria). The main part of the remaining Finnish army was destroyed in a snow storm during the Norwegian campaign of Karl XII in 1718, during which he also died. The following peace of Uusikaupunki (1721) ceded large parts of Karelia to Russia, the border came very close to the current Finnish eastern border. Population had been severely diminished and impoverished by the war, famines, occupation, territorial losses and plague. St.Petersburg, new capital of Russia, was founded in the middle of largely Finnish populated Ingria in 1703.
Sweden had not, however, given up its hopes for still being a great power and soon another war , the "War of the Hats" (1741-43) named after adventurous politics by the "Hat" party as opposed to the peace politics of the "Nightcaps" party, lead to additional losses in the peace treaty of Turku in 1743. The Swedish army was not any more either well prepared or motivated. In the course of the War the Russian empress Elizabeth declared to the Finnish people her intention of making Finland a separate state under Russian suzerainty. She failed to follow up the idea, but it found favour with some Finns. Another war followed, Sweden attacked Prussia (1757-62) during the Seven Years war, better known as the "War of Pomerania" ("Pommerin sota") in Finland, which came to nothing but an expensive campaign. Finnish soldiers brought potato from Germany back home, though it had been tried already a decade ago. Sweden made one more attempt against Russia during the "Gustavian era" (1772-1809). The "Theater King" Gustav III, who also had reimposed mild absolutism in Sweden in 1772, tried to alter the verdict of the Great Northern War by declaring war against Russia in 1788. The campaign failed partly due to a significant incident, mutiny of a group of Finnish military officers (the Anjala League) who were weary of Finland serving as a battleground between Sweden and Russia. Because of successful defence including famous sea battles at Svensksund and Russia's simultaneous involvement in a war with the Ottoman Empire, Sweden was able to secure a stalemate settlement in 1790 in the Treaty of Vдrдlд. Thus, Sweden was no longer a great power and it began to put more effort to internal politics and infrastructure, which was a good thing as such.

Free market economics began to develop and a Finnish economist (really a priest) Antti Chydenius published a study on economics in 1765 somewhat similar to Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations (1776) before him, in Swedish. Politicians from Finland often played a leading role during the Parliamentarian times (1723-72), eg Count Arvid Horn (from the "Nightcaps" party) was Chancellor in 1721-38. In the end of the century Gustav Mauritz Armfelt became the leading councilor at King Gustav III - and then later the Russian emperor's councilor-in-chief for Finnish affairs. Legislation was significantly developed in 1734, the "Law of 1734" remained partially long in force in Finland. The agrarian settlement pattern changed, from more closed villages to widely scattered family farms, because of an "enclosure movement" or "big reallocation" (isojako), started in 1757 with the objective of replacing the old system of strip-farming with a more efficient system of integrated and independent landholdings. The more peaceful era also created rapid population growth, even if need for labour was often greater than supply. First newspaper in Finnish, Tieto-Sanomat, was published in 1776. Moreover, a Finnish national identity, clearly separate from what people felt in proper Sweden, began to develop, but the people remained loyal to the throne that served them reasonably well by the standards of 18th century. The government also started to take Finnish language more seriously, new notes had both Swedish and Finnish text. Finland was still the eastern half of the Swedish Kingdom, a smaller and poorer but also rich in common culture and strong people. 18th century events from Agricola network in Finnish
What Finland was before 1809 in Finnish by Ohto Manninen

Suomenlinna - the Gibraltar of Norden

Art of the Gustavian Era at Ateneum, the Museum of Finnish Art

Map of Sweden's possessions and losses during the 17th and 18th century.

Time of Chydenius in Finnish

"Their [Finns] character can tolerate cold and toil and what many a nation would consider to be insufferable famine."
- Christian Friedrich Weber, Das verдnderte Russland, 1721

"The climate is severe; there is scarcely any spring or autumn, but there are nine months of winter in the year... The people ... live to a good old age when they do not undermine their constitutions by the abuse of strong drink..."
- Voltaire, Histoire de Charles XII (description of Sweden and Finland) 1731

Old Finnish sauna, an important part of national heritage.
(Source: The Finnish Sauna Society)


Russian Rule 1809-1917
After Sweden lost its position as a great power Russian pressure on Finland increased. Swedish government was often more interested in the western affairs and left the eastern defence into Finnish hands with inadequate funding. Emperor Alexander I promised Napoleon in Tilsit (1807) to persuade Sweden to join an anti-British alliance. When this failed, Russia invaded and eventually conquered whole of Finland in the strategically badly led war of 1808-1809 with Sweden leading the two parts of the Kingdom on separate ways. Russian forces attacked Finland February 21, 1808. Due to intelligence reports the army in Finland had been mobilized since three weeks, and initially the war went satisfactorily. But then the sea fortress of Sveaborg (Suomenlinna) surrendered without a fight in May, after less than two months of siege during which they did not receive any real information how the war was going. The educated classes in Finland (i.e. clergy, landowners and administrators - mostly Swedish speaking) seem to have been comfortable with the idea of Finland possibly becoming part of the Russian empire. The peasantry, however, was afraid of becoming enserfed as the Estonians had been. Thus, the peasantry organized guerilla units behind Russian lines, sometimes cooperating with the Swedish army, but with the winter the guerilla warfare stopped. The remaining Finnish troops surrendered by the spring, when the Russians had advanced into the Sweden proper and landed troops near Stockholm too, Sweden was convinced that it would better be in good relations with Russia. Sweden had to seek peace and in the Peace Treaty of Hamina in September 1809 the whole of Finland was joined to Russia. The peace was preceded by a revolution in Stockholm and the Diet in Porvoo in March, where the Estates of Finland declared their will to come under Russian rule. One of Napoleon's marshals, Bernadotte, became the heir to the thrown of Sweden in 1810, and his descendants rule Sweden to this day. After the defeat of Napoleon Sweden was compensated with Norway .
During the Swedish period, Finland was usually only a group of eastern provinces and not a national entity. When Russia annexed Finland in 1809 it became an autonomous Grand Duchy. Earlier lost eastern parts of Finland around Viipuri ("old Finland") were also returned in 1811, this brought the Finnish border near St.Petersburg. Much of the Swedish-era legislation was kept and self-rule granted. Some say that the old (Gustavian) tradition survived better in Finland than Sweden. Russian government may have wanted to experiment with reforms and it also wanted to create goodwill, as Finland might otherwise proven to be difficult to administer. All this and, what it may have seemed, the end of period of repeated wars Finland being a buffer between Sweden and Russia, made the transition from Sweden to Russian Empire for many people relatively easy to accept.

The Grand Duke was the Russian Emperor, whose representative in Finland was a Governor General. Finland's own highest governing body was the Senate, whose members were exclusively Finns. Matters pertaining to Finland were presented to the Emperor in St. Petersburg by the Finnish Minister Secretary of State. Thus, the administration of Finland was handled directly by the Emperor and the Russian authorities were therefore unable to interfere. Finns were, however, able to make careers inside the Russian administration and many served especially in the army, Finland gave Russia several generals and admirals. Two governors of Alaska were of Finnish origin before it was sold to the USA. The role of Czar as a constitutional monarch in Finland was much in contrast with his role in other parts of the Russian empire. Peaceful Finland was also able to keep the autonomy long whereas many others, like for example rebelling Poles, lost their bits of home-rule. Finland gained experience of co-existence with Russia and the loyalty of Finns was slowly shifted towards the Czar but with increasing sense of national identity and need for autonomy.

When Emperor Alexander I, Grand Duke of Finland in 1809-1825, gave Finland extensive autonomy he effectively created the Finnish state. The Lutheran Church retained its position, and so did Swedish as the official language. Helsinki was made the capital of Finland instead of Turku in 1812, and the University was also moved to Helsinki in 1828 after a severe fire in Turku. Kalevala , the Finnish national epic, was first published by Lцnnrot in 1835. The first Finnish railway, between Helsinki and Hдmeenlinna, was opened in 1862. A Language Decree issued in 1863 by Alexander II marked the beginning of the process through which Finnish became an official administrative language. At the beginning of the Russian rule the administration was largely taken care by the Finnish civil servants without a real mandate from the people, represented by the Diet that did not have meetings for few decades ("night of statehood"). The reasons for this may have been the reluctancy of the Czar and the will of the civil service to build the country without complicating parliament. Soon the need for new legislation and more effective representation of the estates became clear. The Diet convened in 1863 after a break of more than half a century, since then the Diet met regularly starting active legislative work in Finland. Furthermore, largely thanks to the important developer of Finnish society and state secretary of finance Johan Vilhelm Snellman (1806-1881), Finland got its own currency, Markka, in 1860. Economic development accelerated and business became less controlled. The Conscription Act of 1878 even gave Finland an army of its own, the country had several features of an independent nation. To sum up, the mid-19th century was generally a peaceful period for Finland except for minor incidents during the Crimean War (1854-56).

In contrast to the early peaceful progress as a Grand Duchy, the late 19th century marked the rising of Slavophilic thought and integration of the Russian empire implying hard times for the Finnish autonomy. Finns used mostly the methods of passive resistance but also violence occurred. A strong proponent of Russification, Governor General Bobrikov, was assassinated by a son of a Finnish senator in 1904. The first period of oppression (1899-1905), which for example closed down separate Finnish army and made the administration more open to Russians, ended soon after the Russian defeat in war against Japan. Also domestic problems forced the Russian government to appease Finns.

Two political factions emerged: the "Constitutionalists" (the Swedish Party and the Young Finnish Party), who were strongly against illegal enactments; and the "Compliers" (the Old Finnish Party), who were ready to appease in everything that did not, in their opinion, affect Finland's vital interest. Labour unions started to grow too, the general strike of 1905 was a strong expression of opinion. Also a Social Democratic party was born, they wrote a policy paper in 1903 demanding for several social changes. The peaceful period before the second era of oppression (1908-17) allowed Finland, fortunately, to develop its democracy creating unicameral right to vote for all adult citizens. Thus, granting also women full political rights, suffrage and eligibility to run for the Diet , as the first country in Europe in 1906; the Finnish administration got the first female Members of the Parliament in the world.

Finnish music, literature and arts in general rose to new heights by such persons as Jean Sibelius and Akseli Gallen-Kallela, and many others. In the early Olympic games Finland formed a separate team from Russia and gained more medals than the vastly larger empire. Moreover, peace and development further increased population growth and a wave of emigration to the USA and other distant countries followed. Industrialization started slowly, Finland remained fairly agrarian in comparison with western European countries despite the growth of forest industry and first steps in mining etc. During the 1910's the Russification development was abruptly intensified and the 1st World War shifted the attention to other events. Finnish nationalists began to plan partition of Finland from Russia and sent nearly 2000 men for training in the German army, the "Jдgers" (Jддkдrit) who fought their war in the Baltic front. Therefore, some Finns fought on both the Russian and German side, which caused some friction among the military officers after independence. Russian emperors as the Grand Dukes of the Grand Duchy of Finland
Alexander I (1809-25)
Nicholas I (1825-55)
Alexander II (1855-81)
Alexander III (1881-94)
Nicholas II (1894-1917)

Solemn Assurance by the Emperor Alexander in 1809 to respect constitutional rights of citizens in the newly acquired Grand Duchy of Finland.

Napoleon Bonaparte's Role in Finnish, Swedish and Russian Foreign Policy, 1801-1814 by Sarah Hale.

The Gracious Manifesto of the Imperial Majesty in 1899

History of the Helsinki Senate Square by Frank Hellstйn (Finfo)

Maps of Finland as part of Russia from FINFO

Travels in Finland in the 1870s - Illustrations from the book of the same name by Zachris Topelius (1818-1898), written by Joe Brady FINFO

"Serious, reserved and fond of a retired life."
- The Oxford Encyclopedia, 1828

"It would be difficult to find a town [Helsinki] of 80 000 inhabitants in England so clean, so bright, with such museums, libraries, and public buildings. Even Bedford is not as educational as Helsingfors, nor is Brighton so well served with social amusements, concerts and theatres."
- A.M.C. Clive-Bailey, Vignettes from Finland, or Twelve Months in Strawberry Land, 1895

Finnish currency: First markka note from 1860
(Source: Bank of Finland*)

Ainola (1904), home of composer Jean Sibelius
(Source: City of Jдrvenpдд*)

Aleksis Kivi (1834 - 1872)
The first significant professional writer in Finnish
(Source: National Board of Antiquities*)



Early Independence 1917-39
Finland was not directly involved in the World War I (1914-1918), although Russian troops were garrisoned in the country. In 1917 Russia plunged into the chaos of Revolution: Finland seized the opportunity on December 6, 1917, Parliament approved the declaration of independence drawn up by the Senate under the leadership of Pehr Evind Svinhufvud (1861-1944). Soviet Russia, Lenin and Stalin among the leaders, soon recognised the independence. Soviet leaders had high hopes for a successful revolution in Finland too and some 40,000 Russian soldiers remained in Finland. Worryingly at the same time, the breach between the parties of the left and the right had become hostile. At the end of January 1918, the leftwing parties staged a coup forcing the rightwing government to flee from Helsinki to Vaasa. The development was an unhappy mixture of freedom fight and revolutionary activism. The "Reds" wanted to create a socialistic Finland, possibly in union with emerging Soviet Russia.
The ensuing bitter Civil War between the "Red" militia in the south and "White" government, assisted by some Swedish and Norwegian volunteers, based in middle and northern parts of the country ended in May 1918 with victory for the government troops. "White" troops were led by General Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim (1867-1951), who had made an impressive career in the Russian army. The backbone of the "White" army consisted of few officers trained in the imperial Russia and the "Jдgers" who returned from Germany. The bulk of the armies consisted, however, of poorly trained and armed conscripts. A German infantry division and naval forces helped the "Whites" upon invitation by conquering Helsinki and some other coastal areas, but the decisive battle of Tampere was fought already earlier, and some Russian troops sided and aided the "Reds". At the dawn of independence Finland had a population of some 3,000,000, of which 30,000 perished in the civil war and related terror by both sides, more defeated "Reds" than "Whites" died (there still exists disagreement on what the war should be called: independence, rebellion, freedom, civil, or something else).

When the order was restored, prior to new elections, the planning for a new constitution and government began. First the idea of creating a Kingdom , like the other Nordic countries, found support in the "rump" Parliament. They chose Friedrich Karl, Prince of Hesse, the son-in-law of German Emperor Wilhelm II, to be the king "Vдinц I". In few weeks the collapse of Germany in the First World War made this project void reducing German influence on Finnish politics. The parties with republican orientation won the parliamentary elections in March 1919. Thus, Finland became a Republic in the summer of 1919; Kaarlo Juho Stеhlberg (1865-1952) was elected as the first President (1919-25). The breach between classes caused by the War was alleviated by conciliatory measures such as including the Social Democrats in the government; in 1926-1927 SDP formed a minority government. The land ownership was changed by a law in 1918 and 1922 ("Lex Kallio"), which made it possible for the tenants and small farmers to acquire more land.

Finland chose not to play active part in the Russian revolution, some domestic and foreign wishes for supporting the White Russian forces where swept aside, though voluntary troops participated in military campaigns in Eastern Karelia and helped to create independent Estonia. Soon, having tempered down bold thoughts of creating a greater Finland, the Peace of Dorpat (Tartto) was made with Russia in 1920, also a non-aggression pact with Soviet Union was signed in 1932. In the Peace Treaty, Finland, among other things, gave up territorial claims in Soviet Karelia, confirmed the rights to Petsamo (Petchenga) with nickel deposits at the Arctic coast and received a promise that Soviet Union will respect the rights of the Fenno-Ugrians in the neighbouring areas, which never became reality under Stalin's reign. (Remaining Ingrians have been allowed to migrate to Finland during the 1990's.) Friction with the Soviet regime continued, however, eg during the 1920's espionage activity was vivid in Finland. After the war Finland prospered and grouped with the other neutral Nordic countries. Also, German sympathies were notable, but not uncritical. Several politicians favored more the Western, Anglophile, orientation. The press had a critical tone towards both the development in Germany and Soviet Union.

Еland islands caused a major test for Finnish diplomacy. When Finland declared its independence the majority of the Swedish speaking population of the islands voted to join Sweden. During the Civil War the islanders saw in turn Russian, White, Swedish, Red and German troops. The Finnish government did not wish to see Еland to join Sweden, culturally there was much in common but historically the islands were close to Finland. The issue was addressed at the League of Nations, which peacefully solved the dispute in favour of Finland, but the islands got an extensive autonomy.

At domestic level, all kind of social activity was vivid, professional groups, political parties, sports enthusiasts, women, voluntary armed defence supporters and many others founded associations to further their interests and development. Fennoman movement was fairly strong, but Finland kept and still has both Finnish and Swedish as official languages. Many people with Swedish family name, however, changed their name into a Finnish one. In the early 1930's fascism emerged and the domestic Lapua-movement attempted a coup d'etat in 1932 ("Mдntsдlдn kapina"). Coup clearly failed and the movement was banned by using the laws the movement had been eager to push into force for banning the Communist Party and its followers earlier (1930). An extreme right party (IKL ), however, was formed but it never gained widespread support and Finnish fascism remained a marginal phenomenon. A peculiar part of the early extreme right activity was to kidnap and transport opposing politicians to the Soviet border ("kyyditykset"). Social Democratic Party, the Conservatives, the Agrarian Party and the Swedish People's Party played the key roles in political life. Communists stayed mostly underground, largely led from Moscow, during the inter war period.

The depression of 1930's hit also Finland, but the two decades after the independence were generally good time and the nation learned to be a democratic independent nation among nations. Moreover, agriculture dominated economy started to industrialize faster; agriculture continued to be the backbone of the economy but the lumber industry led the growth and development, and its success fuelled progress in other sectors. Exports of forest industry products to UK and other countries grew bringing more capital into the country; mining and stronger capital intensive metal industries emerged. Migration from the countryside to towns and abroad continued. Prohibition law (1919-32) banning the consumption of alcohol was also tried and failed in Finland. Regents during the first years of independence
Pehr Evind Svinhufvud (1918)
Carl Gustav Emil Mannerheim (1918-19)

Presidents of the republic of Finland

Kaarlo Juho Stеhlberg (1919-25)
Lauri Kristian Relander (1925-31)
Pehr Evind Svinhufvud (1931-37)
Kyцsti Kallio (1937-40)
Risto Heikki Ryti (1940-44)
Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim (1944-46)
Juho Kusti Paasikivi (1946-56)
Urho Kaleva Kekkonen (1956-81)
Mauno Henrik Koivisto (1982-94)
Martti Oiva Kalevi Ahtisaari (1994-2000)
Tarja Kaarina Halonen (2000- )

"Like a chasm runs the border.
In front, Asia, the East;
In back, Europe, the West:
Like a sentry, I stand guard."
- Uuno Kailas, in a poem

"Countries are like people: by their very existence they exalt or deflate the opinions one would like to have of oneself. When I return from Finland, I feel younger and livelier; I make great plans, I like many things in the world and, what is more, I like myself a little better."
- Georges Duhamel, Chant du Nord, 1929

"White general" C.G.E. Mannerheim in 1918.
(Source: University of Tampere*)

A stamp for "the Flying Finn" Paavo Nurmi, maybe the best runner ever, winning 3000 m in the Olympic games in Paris in 1924
(Source: Stampville - Finland Post Ltd*)

Declaration of independence in Finnish

Events of 1918 in Finnish

An essay on the Civil war in English from the US Congress Library

Brief introduction to the Finnish democratical development during the 20th century from FINFO

Before the War: Finland, Stalin and Germany in 1930s by Timo Vihavainen

Maps of Independent Finland from FINFO

The Many Karelias- The Karelian question in Finnish history by Pekka Nevalainen (Finfo)



Three Finnish Wars of WWII 1939-45
Finland fought three interconnected wars during the Second World War. First was the "Winter War" (1939-40) against Soviet Union (hereafter SU) after its aggression, second "Continuation War" (1941-44) alongside Germany against SU in attempt to reconquer and secure the eastern areas, and third "Lapland War" (1944-45) against Germany to drive its forces out of northern Finland. The WW II had an important impact on the development of Finland as the most of the world.
Finnish troops were better prepared for harsh Winter conditions and tactically very capable during the Winter War (1939-40); but short of armament and ammunition, and all but infinitely outnumbered.
(Source: Matti Yrjцlд*)
Finnish army stopped and counter-attacked the Soviet invasion during the summer 1944 in Tali-Ihantala and other places too, many Soviet tanks were destroyed using modern German antitank weapons - Winter War Molotov's cocktail had become nearly obsolete against new armor.
(Source: Matti Yrjцlд*)
In the spring of 1938, a Soviet diplomat approached the Finnish foreign minister, with the intent of opening secret discussions to “improve relations” between the two nations in light of the worsening international situation. Officially Soviets mainly demanded a "buffer zone" at the Karelian Isthmus in exchange for some forested land further north, naval bases and acceptance of Soviet military "aid" to protect Leningrad (St.Petersburg) from attack via (or by) Finland. Leningrad was located near the Finnish border and despite the repeated Finnish promises of strict neutrality (a concept which Stalin never seemed to really value or understand) and Finnish government's willingness to minor concessions Soviets increased the pressure. The Soviet attitude was hostile and the offers or demands were considered to be impossible to meet by the Finnish side; neutrality, sovereignty and credibility were not to be sacrificed in exchange for (temporarily) lifted pressure. Finland's fate was sealed by the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact between Soviet Union and Germany in August 1939, and especially by its secret division of Europe into Soviet and German interest spheres. In north Soviet sphere included eastern Poland, Baltic states and Finland.
All but Finland had de facto fallen, Baltic countries kept nominal independence till 1940, by the late autumn 1939. Thus, a year and half later, after multiple rounds of negotiations in Helsinki and Moscow, four Soviet armies attacked Finland on November 30, 1939 at 06.50 AM without a declaration of war, most likely to occupy Finland and replace the Finnish government with a puppet regime. This "Terijoki government", led by O-W Kuusinen, was installed as soon as Red Army held some Finnish border soil. Stalin thought that the Finnish workers and leftists would join the Soviets, which was a mistake as most of the nation stood united behind sovereignty, the "spirit of the Winter War" was born. The workers' newspaper Sosialisti (The Socialist) called the Terijoki government "an Asiatic joke". Western democracies gasped and appalled but were unable to offer much else than sympathy, few volunteers helped the Finnish army, and expel SU from the League of Nations. Sweden agreed to take care of a large number of Finnish children as refugees. Governments of France and UK slowly planned an operation to send a small force to help Finland against SU. The real purpose of the troops would probably have been to cut the shipping of iron ore from Northern Sweden to Germany, on the excuse of maintaining communications from Finland to Norwegian ports, but Norway and Sweden denied the right to transit. Had the plan been implemented UK and SU might have ended fighting each other instead of being allied. Germany looked away, even stopped arms shipments from Italy to Finland, as Hitler and Ribbentrop had given SU rights to occupy Finland.

Stalin and Soviet generals expected the Red Army to be in Helsinki in few weeks, and the Soviet troops made initially good progress due to surprise, though there was some intelligence information on the Red army movements and defensive preparations too, and the sheer volume of the attack. Soviet forces had been given orders not to cross the border to Sweden once they had marched through Finland. However, to world's surprise, the Soviet attack was stalled and in many places thrown back with great casualties. Encirclement, motti, battles were fought along the few roads leading from the long Finnish border to the inland: whole Soviet divisions were wiped out and their equipment captured adding significant help to the otherwise ill-equipped Finnish armed forces. Main contributors to these victories were the fighting spirit of the Finnish troops and the skillful tactics in the frozen forests on the road-bound attackers, and Soviet incompetence. Consequently, Hitler and many German generals thought that beating the red army was not such a difficult task, a costly mistake; SU rewrote its infantry doctrine based on the Winter War experience and later Wehrmacht learned to know the better educated "Generals of January and February".

After Finland had beaten the first attacks Soviet Union changed the commanders leading the attack as well as tactics. Turning to their absolute superiority in air power, artillery and tanks and sheer manpower (over 1,000,000 men from Arctic to Gulf of Finland, of which about 600,000 on the Karelian Isthmus) the new attack in February gradually wore down the thin Finnish defense on the Karelian isthmus forcing the defenders to withdraw. On the Karelian isthmus, along the famous Mannerheim line, the fighting resembled more of the First World War massive frontal attacks than the mobile encirclement battles fought elsewhere on the fronts. Lack of artillery, ammunitions and reserves made the breaching of the main defensive line inevitable. Meanwhile, SU feared an intervention by the western democracies and wanted to end the humiliating war, Finland was just barely able to hold the front while renewed peace negotiations went on. Thus, Stalin abandoned the puppet government at Terijoki. Possible Western military aid seemed to come too late and be too little to change anything. Some newer, still controversial, evidence seems to indicate that few persons in Finnish and German governments had secret discussions already in 1940; the Germans urged Finns to make peace now so that they could later get their pay-back with interest. The Winter War had also a wide media coverage and one of the first real war press rooms for international correspondents. Soviet Union got plenty of bad publicity.

In March Finland decided to accept the heavy peace rules dictated by SU, Finland lost one-tenth of its territory, including Viipuri (Vyborg) and Hanko as a rented base for Soviet navy, among other things but kept its independence. Some important ones of the pre-war Soviet demands, like a commitment to accept Soviet military "aid", were not forced

, , - 2000-08-03 14:48:29 - host: txmac27.pc.helsinki.fi (128.214.19.84)


Кто накладную на тюленя подписывал,а?! Признавайтесь, шалунишки! Куда я его размещать буду? И санитары у меня не обучены под такое дело!
Вот лишь бы набедокурить где да языков понабирать! А шо с ними делать?! Давно я говорил, пора вас всех тута запереть и шашлыками кормить до усрачки...

Главврач грцвпстнского дурдома, , - 2000-08-03 14:45:24 - host: goliath5.primary-server.net (216.71.84.142)


Ыцарь, ты какой-то Ёбнутый, извините за выражение... тут серьезные люди собрались, обсуждают грузино-марсианские темы... А ты тут пионЭришь...

ПингвЫны, отключите Ыцаря нафиг! За оффтоп...

OPD, , - 2000-08-03 14:44:03 - host: heze.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.132)


3

Мурат Рашидович сунул пакет с травой в карман, встал с крыльца, и тут в ворота постучали. Алиев поморщился. Не хотелось сейчас с кем-нибудь иметь дело: Он вздохнул и пошел к воротам.
- Кто тут?
- Мурат Рашидович? - спросил с улицы незнакомый голос.
- Ну, я: Кто это? - Алиев нагнулся и посмотрел в дырочку, но было уже так темно, что ничего конкретного он там не увидел. Только какая-то тень.
- Мурат Рашидович, я от Алика.
- От какого такого Алика? - спросил Алиев, хотя уже понял от какого.
Аликом звали его земляка из Тамбова с которым у них было общее дело. Алик направлял Алиеву проверенных плановых клиентов.
- От Алика Керимова:
Мурат отодвинул засов и приоткрыл ворота.
- Проходи: только быстро:
Человек прошмыгнул мимо Алиева во двор. Мурат запер ворота и повернулся.
- Пошли к дому.
Они подошли к крыльцу. Мурат пошарил рукой по стене, щелкнул выключателем. Над крыльцом загорелась лампочка. Алиев повернулся к незнакомцу.
Молодой парень, лет двадцати пяти, высокий, с длинными светлыми волосами, в кожаной куртке с множеством молний, в ковбойских сапогх и черных джинсах. Из-под расстегнутой куртки выглядывала черная майка с огненными монстрами хеви-металла. А вот лица парня Мурат не видел, парень держался за челюсть рукой. На внешней стороне ладони Алиев разглядел татуировку змеи и надпись готическими буквами SERGEY. Типичный бездельник, которых в последние годы развелось множество и которые, в основном, и покупали у Алиева травку.
Но что-то Алиеву в нем сильно не понравилось. Он не мог понять что именно: Но почему-то сразу решил, что это ментовская засада:
- Ты чего за морда держишь? - спросил он.
- Зубы болят, - ответил парень и Алиев понял, что тот врет.
Ни-че-го-у-не-го-не-бо-лит!
- Понятно, - в голове Мурата быстро завертелись мысли. Нужно было как-то выпутываться. Он решил притвориться. - А чего пришел-то? - спросил он.
- Как чего? Я ж сказал, от Алика!
- От какого Алика?
- Я ж сказал, от Керимова!
- Ну и что дальше?.. Алик велел мне что-нибудь передать?.. Тогда давай и уходи:
- Я за травой.
- Какой-такой травой?! Иди на лужайку за травой, где коровы ее кушают!
- Ты чего?.. Ты чего придуриваешься? - в голосе парня послышалась угроза. - Не придуривайся! У меня времени нет, давай траву! Покупаю!
- Брат: что ты хочешь? - Алиев развел руками. - Я, брат, не понимаю, да:
Я спать хочу, брат: Что ты ко мне пришел ночью?.. Приходи днем, чай выпьем: Может днем, брат, ты мне объяснишь, какое дело у тебя: А то, брат, ты пьяный немного: говоришь непонятно: Давай иди, приходи днем, - он легонько подтолкнул парня к воротам.
- Да ладно тебе мозги-то компостировать, - парень увернулся, неожиданно ловко залез к Алиеву в карман и выхватил оттуда пакет с травой. - Вот она! Вот какая трава! В кармане у тебя лежит! Ого! - он повертел перед собой пакетом. - Да тут много!
Алиев побледнел и на лице у него выступили капельки пота. Он растерялся. Он не ожидал такого поворота. Парень сунул Алиеву в руку несколько купюр.
Раздался грохот. Ворота полетели на землю и во двор ворвались еще несколько фигур. Когда они приблизились, Мурат разглядел двух солдат в плащ-палатках и нескольких молодых людей в кожаных куртках.
- Понятые! - закричал один солдат. - Вы являетесь свидетелями купли-продажи наркотиков! Только что на ваших глазах этот гнусный торговец зеленой смертью продал русскому парню мешок травки! Купюры помечены.
- Солдат подбежал к совсем обалдевшему Алиеву и выхватил у него из рук деньги.

ЛКН, , - 2000-08-03 14:42:45 - host: spica.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.103)


A Web History of Finland
Up to Y2K
by Pasi Kuoppamдki


Edition 2.2 (2000) likely to include few omissions and mistakes.
A Web History of Finland
Up to Y2K
by Pasi Kuoppamдki


Edition 2.2 (2000) likely to include few omissions and mistakes.



[Foreword ]
[Other resources and literature]

[History by Chronological Order]
Pre-history before 1100 A.D.
From Viking Era under the Swedish Rule 1100-1500
From a Borderland to a Part of a Great Power 1500-1700
Rising Russia and National Identity 1700-1809
Russian Rule 1809-1917
Early Independence 1917-39
Three Finnish Wars of WWII 1939-45
Post-war Era since 1945



Current Map of Finland
(Source: CIA World Factbook)
Search the web history page.




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Foreword
This page is a modest attempt to help foreign readers, and possibly Finnish too, to learn basic Finnish history. There exists few other attempts too, but I hope this will provide an integrated story with both actual history and relevant links. It has evolved around my non-professional historical perspective, history is one of my favorite hobbies. I have utilized other sources on the web, suitable links are provided, and literacy to produce a concise but comprehensive Finnish history, possibly letting my own interests show in the composition. I've been critical to source information but further caution may be needed especially behind the links; ordinary mistakes, personal views and opinions may blur the writings. Moreover, I've tried to stick to well known facts but the facts need sometimes a little uncertain glue in between. Also, some names may not have their correct English form. Thus, absolute correctness of all information is not guaranteed. All written is not true and all trues are not written. I thank all the persons and institutions who helped to make this page possible. The text can be linked to and quoted as long as the reference is given. The pictures on this page cannot be further used without the permission of the original source*. Usual disclaimer applies, i.e. author carries responsibility on the opinions presented on this page. Feedback is welcome and I hope the page will help to appreciate the facts and lessons of history. Enjoy!

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History by Chronological Order
I've chosen to present the actual history in the order it has happened rather than by issues. The link farm at the end of the page will hopefully provide an easier approach to more focused topics.

A brief characterization on Finland and a simplified timeline for starters
Finland is a northern country that has been blessed with a harsh but beautiful landscape and a difficult geopolitical position. Long winters, endless evergreen forests, thousands of lakes and the Baltic Sea have developed the character of the Finnish people. Genetically, Finns are rather close to northern Germanic people, having a slight Siberian flavor. Finns have a peculiar language of their own with several dialects, a minority speaks Swedish. Geographically, Finland is on the far northern periphery of Europe, often left out of the maps of Europe. Geo-politically, larger neighboring nations in West and East, Sweden and Russia, have for centuries dominated the development of Finland and drawn her into innumerable wars. Under these circumstances, Finns have stoically withstood the storms and with resolution developed the nation into a democratic country with a high living standard.


Around 8000 B.C.: people arrive in Finland.
4000 B.C. - 1100 A.D.: Finns form tribes and inhabit larger parts of the country.
1100 - 1350: Sweden and Novgorod (Russia) compete over Finland. Finns are divided in their preferences. Most of the area becomes part of Swedish kingdom. Christianity spreads from the West and the East.
1350 - 1809: Finland is an integral part of Sweden with some own traditions.
1809 - 1917: Finland is annexed by Russia as an autonomous Grand Duchy.
1917 - 1918: Finland becomes an independent republic and fights a bitter civil war.
1939 - 1945: Finland fights two wars against Soviet Union, one against Germany, and remains an independent democratic market economy, but Soviet Union takes areas in Karelia.
1995: Finland joins the European Union
Pre-history before 1100 A.D.
Fairly little is known on the origins of the Finns. Finland as a socio-political entity did hardly exist before the 14th century, some would say Finland was created only in 1809 when Finland became a Grand Duchy in Russian Empire. (Hereafter Finland and Finns will often be used interchangeably, even if early Finland was just an area without strong common identity.) What is known is that the ancestors of today's Finns consisted of different tribes like Karelians, Tavastians and "proper" Finns, who lived in the area that at that time was known as "Finland" in the South-Western part of the country; these tribes have given their names and some characteristics also for some 21st century provinces. Estonians on the southern side of the Gulf of Finland were and are a strongly related nation, but they developed a separate identity. Also few other Finno-Ugrian nationalities share the roots. Later, in the Middle Ages, the country was commonly called Цsterlandet ("Eastland") or Finland, and the South-Western part became Finland Proper (Varsinais-Suomi in Finnish). Finns themselves call the country "Suomi", Finland is the name used in most languages.
Until recently it has been thought that the first people did not arrive to Finland until just over 10,000 years ago. The established view had to be reassessed, however, in 1996 when stones worked by the human hand possibly as early as the lower Palaeolithic period (over 100,000 years ago) were discovered in a cave, Susiluola ('Wolf cave'). Research continues. Speakers of early forms of Finnish, part of Finno-Ugric language family, are believed to have lived in Finland for 6,000 years. Few earlier settlers were of unknown descent, but the area (excluding the new findings from the Wolf cave) became inhabitable only after the end of the last big Ice Age some 8,000 years B.C. Archaeological finds of wood objects from east of the Ural mountains indicate that these people may have belonged to a hunting culture moving over very wide areas. One of the oldest items is a skid of a sledge dating back to 6900 B.C. Genetically Finns are much closer to western European Germanic and also Baltic people than Asiatic people, though a part of the genetical features are common with Siberian people. Large areas in northern Europe may have been populated by Fenno-Ugrian tribes in the pre-historic era. Sбmis, the indigenous people of northern Finland, and Finns possibly split into distinct cultures some 6,000 years ago creating different languages as well, but the relation is not clear at all. Genetically current Sбmis and Finns are different. An old theory claimed that Finns migrated from areas between the Ural mountains and the River Volga, but this theory is doubtful for the lack of physical evidence. Later, Baltic Indo- European immigrants settled the coast merging with the native Comb-Ceramic culture and due to cultural exchange animal husbandry was introduced about 4,500 years ago.

Approximately 2,000 years ago the southern and western coasts were inhabited by people in close cultural contact with Scandinavia, but the inland kept closer contacts to the East. Thus, some cultural differentiation between the geographically separated groups may have occurred. "Roman Iron Age" (1-400 A.D.) evidence implies that a Baltic sea-farer culture connected estuaries at Southern shores of the Baltic Sea with Finland, Estonia and Sweden. Fur was the major export good of that time. Settlement was concentrated in villages, while social development appears to have been fairly advanced in other ways as well. Rich graveyards from that period have been found and coastal cultural influence spread inland to Tavastia. Several layers of folklore reflect the cultural interaction between three ecological regions: the Arctic, the Woodland and the Coastal Lowlands. Еland (Ahvenanmaa in Finnish) was colonized by people from what is currently known as Sweden and has remained culturally Swedish ever since. During the late first millennium the Western Finnish culture spread its influence to Karelia in eastern Finland, around Lake Ladoga, where an independent culture arose. A Roman historian Tacitus mentions miserable and poor "Fenni" in "Germania" in A.D. 98 but his description does not fit the historical knowledge about Finns.

During Viking age the three above mentioned distinct Finnish cultures can be identified: Karjala ( Karelia ), Hдme (Tavastia/Tavastland) covering the southern lake-area and Varsinais-Suomi (Finland proper) at the south-western coast. It is believed that these tribes had an administrative system with governors (or "kings") comparable to those among Germanic tribes, and local councils where free men discussed common matters. Some even believe that there was a united Finnish "kingdom", e.g. some Scandinavian sagas mention " Finnish kings" but the theory remains very questionable. Vikings sailed the Finnish coast on their way to east but did not manage to get permanent power in Finland, though Viking sagas mention raids into the Finnish inland. Remains of local "hill castles" for defensive purposes have been found from that era. Finns probably did not launch Viking type of raids outside the Baltic. Some revenge raids against the Vikings and also Novgorod were made though; as late as in 1187 Karelians and Estonians sailed, and plundered and burned the main city of Sweden, Sigtuna . There exists also some evidence indicating that Finns may have been actively participating in the Swedish voyages to Russia, but nothing certain is known. The word "Rus" for Russia may derive from Ruotsi, the Finnish name for Sweden.

The exchange of goods and ideas between the coastal inhabitants and Germanic tribes in Scandinavia was active. Vikings probably settled also at Finnish, often not habited, shores and estuaries, established families with Finns and merged with the native population's gene pool. Some Finnish and Viking trading posts have been found, e.g. the town of Staraja Ladoga in Karelia was a Viking stronghold. Al Idris, the geographist of the Norman king of Sicily mentions Tavastland first time in 1154. Valuable material on the early history was rare to begin with. Much has been destroyed for example in fires of libraries. All in all, too much remains unknown about the pre-Swedish history of Finland. The prehistory of Finland in a nutshell by Pirjo Uino (Finfo)
Ancient Finnish religion by Juha Pentikдinen (Finfo)

Introduction to Kalevala - the Finnish national epic by Anneli Asplund (Finfo)

Viking network

The prehistory of Finland with lots of graphics

Where do the Finns come from? by Christian Carpelan (Finfo)

Origin of the Finnish People in the Light of Science and Mythology - a partisan view on the origin and prehistory of Finns

Typical comb-ceramic bowl
(Source: University of Helsinki*)


From Viking Era under the Swedish Rule 1100-1500
During the early 12th century, Finland was almost a political vacuum, though the separate tribes existed, and interesting to its neighbors Sweden and Novgorod (Russian). Also Denmark was interested in areas at the Gulf of Finland but with little success, except in Estonia which was under Danish rule for some time. Moreover, the Catholic and Greek Orthodox Churches wanted to spread their faith into Finland, using also the power of sword if necessary, though some Finns had already adopted Christianity in peaceful ways. Sweden, where a more integrated nation state had emerged earlier due to closer contacts with central Europe, was more successful in its military operations and "crusades" (1155, 1238 or 1949 and 1293) to different parts of Finland. According to a legend, Nicholas Breakspear, an English Cardinal who became Pope Adrian IV, encouraged the Swedish King Eric to cross the sea with a strong force. This so-called First Crusade to Finland, launched by Swedes and led by the English Bishop Henry and the King Erik, was probably made in 1155. Groups of Finns were allied with the Swedes at that point already, Finns were divided. Some Swedish speaking population probably already existed at the Finnish coasts, too. Some evidence indicates that the "crusades" could have been mainly military attacks by the allied Swedes and Finns against other Finns and Novgorod. According to legends, Bishop Henry was killed within a year and subsequently became the patron saint of Turku and Finland. A papal bull (1171 or 1172) proposed that the Swedes hold Finland in subjection with permanent garrisons. The bull also claims that some Finns have been treacherous by asking military help against Novgorod in exchange for their conversion to Catholicism and abandoning the faith after the threat has been abolished. In any case, the Greek Orthodox Church extended its influence from Novgorod to Karelia, where a mass baptization was executed in 1227, and Tavastia, which was still more independent revenging the Novgorodian raids in 1228, causing a clash with the Catholic side.
Bishop Thomas (1220-45) extended the Finnish Catholic diocese to Tavastia, probably with armed assistance; a "pagan" rebellion followed (the timing of the 2nd or "Tavastian" Crusade is uncertain, some sources place it in 1238 and others beyond the death of Thomas in 1249). Fairly soon, the rebellion was defeated by forces loyal to Catholic Sweden. Sweden's de facto head Earl Birger (1248-66) strengthened the Swedish power in Tavastia, also a castle was built in Hдmeenlinna. The alliance between Finns and Swedes became more evident, they made a military expedition, led by Thomas, against Novgorod in 1240, but lost the final battle at river Neva (the leader of Novgorod became subsequently Alexander Nevski). Novgorodians also made few raids to Finland and burned the Cathedral of Turku. 3rd Crusade was made to Karelia in 1293 and a castle was built in Viipuri (Vyborg) to protect the eastern border; Karelia became more divided causing trouble later ion. Population estimates for this time are extremely difficult to make, but it was still extremely sparse and there may have been only some 50,000 Finns.

The peace treaty of Noteburg (Pдhkinдsaari) in 1323 between Sweden and Novgorod assigned only Eastern Finland to Novgorod, the borders of Finland as a part of Sweden were defined first time by a treaty. The current mainland of Finland, western and southern parts, were tied to Sweden and the Western European cultural sphere, while eastern Finland, Karelia, became more closely linked to the Russo-Orthodox world; Finns shared the fortunes and misfortunes, not always equally, of Sweden for the next some 500 years till 1809. Consequently, Finland has remained between East and West ever since searching for its own, largely west oriented, identity.

Swedish domination meant that Swedish legal and social systems rooted in Finland. Central European type of Feudalism was not part of the system and the Finnish peasants were never serfs; they always retained their personal freedom. The Swedish system was probably not in any great contrast to the earlier traditions, except for the religion, taxation and unity of the state with Swedish as the high-level administrative language. Native Finns held important positions in the administration, weak central government and internal disputes in Sweden made the local administration powerful. Starting from the latter part of the thirteenth century the crown slowly gained a greater authority with the introduction of royal castles, establishment of temporal nobility and provincial administration. Most important town during the Swedish period in Finland was Turku, founded in the middle of the 13th century; Turku (Еbo in Swedish) was also the Bishop's seat. The first native Bishop was appointed in 1291.

Consolidation of Finland as an integral part of the Swedish Kingdom continued, in 1362 Finns were given the right to send representatives to the election of the King in Sweden, and after the period of Kalmar Union between the Scandinavian kingdoms in the 16th century this right was extended to include representation in the Swedish Diet. The consequent development could be described as Sweden and Finland growing to be an actual uniform country together, originally the country was divided into Gцta, Svea and Finland. Svea and Gцta had been separate kingdoms early in the Middle Ages but then their difference slowly disappeared. A name Sweden was used of all of them and later Skеne (Scania) grew to the same connection from the areas taken from Denmark. The division was sometimes useful though, e.g. when the country was divided into Gцta's, Svea's and Finland's courts of appeal. Finland was occasionally considered to be a grand duchy to lift the Swedish king's prestige (officially after 1581), also geographers and historians made the distinction. Finnish language survived but was not yet developed into a real "cultural language".

The Union of Kalmar (1397-1521/23) between Nordic countries, Denmark as the dominant member, allowed Finnish nobility to act rather freely, eg during the 1460's Tott brothers ruled Finland very independently like regents. The ruling upper class of Finland was very small and disintegrated, however. The Catholic Church and powerful Bishops played an important role too. The clergy and few others got their higher education often from the University of Paris, two of the Rectors were from Finland during the 14th and 15th century, and later from German and Swedish universities. King Kristoffer developed legislation (1442), which led to the development of rural jurisdictional districts. Trade increased and foreign merchants settled in bigger Finnish towns, Hanseatic League was a powerful organization in Finland too. Finns exported at least furs and fish. Swedes rebelled few times with varying success against harsh Danish rule; the unrest spread also to Finland in smaller scale and the Union became less popular. Novgorod was defeated by growing Moscow (Russia) in 1471 and finally annexed in 1478, subsequently a stronger pressure on Finland re-emerged from the East. A famous incident took place when the Castle of Viipuri was sieged in 1495, under Ivan III of Moscow who had allied with Danes. The situation of the defenders looked hopeless, but they were saved by the mysterious "Viborg blast", a big explosion which scared off the Russians because they saw a St. Andrew's cross in the sky.

Population grew more or less steadily during the 15th and 16th century, possibly reaching half a million inhabitants by the 17th century. Life was simple for the peasantry. Ordinary meals consisted of bread, dry or salted fish and water or sour milk for drink. Clothes were made of flax or wool, hemp and nettle were also used. Hard life in the wide forests with infrequent wars taught both the men and women to be rather independent and resourceful. Consequently, also lured by tax relief incentives, people slowly moved into the free inland areas, where new "tribes" or provinces emerged, two important ones were Savo (Savolax) east of Tavastia and Pohjanmaa (Ostrobotnia) at the western coastal planes; even today one can find some traces of the East-West divide in architecture and cultivation history, slash and burn method maintained long its place in the Eastern Finland. Swedish regents and Kings before the Vasas
1130-1156 Sverker
1150-1160 Erik den helige
1160-1167 Karl Sverkersson
1167-1195 Knut Eriksson
1195-1208 Sverker Karlsson
1208-1216 Erik Knutsson
1216-1222 Johan Sverkersson
1222-1229 Erik Eriksson
1229-1234 Knut Holmgersson Lеnge
1234-1249 Erik Eriksson Lдspe och Halte

Folkungas:
1250-1266 Birger Jarl
1250-1275 Valdemar Birgersson
1275-1290 Magnus Birgersson Ladulеs
1290-1318 Birger Magnusson
1319-1364 Magnus Eriksson

Mecklenburgs:
1364-1389 Albrekt af Mecklenburg

Unions of Kalmar regents:
1389-1412 Margareta
1396-1439 Erik af Pommern
1436-1440 Karl Knutsson
1440-1448 Kristoffer III af Bayern
1457-1464 Kristian I
1470-1497 Sten Sture
1497-1501 Johan II (Hans)
1501-1503 Sten Sture
1504-1512 Svante Nilsson Sture
1512-1520 Sten Sture d.y.
1520-1522 Kristian II

Castle of Turku, the first real stronghold of Swedish power in Finland. Building was started app 1280.
(Source: City of Turku*)

Olavinlinna castle, a fortress in Savo against Russia, built (1475-) during the introduction of effective fire arms.
(Source: National Board of Antiquities*)

12th century events, 13th century events, 14th century events and 15th century events from Agricola network in Finnish

Pope Innocentius IV's Letter of Protection to Confessors of Christian Faith in Finland 1249

An essay on the origins of Swedish-Finns

Map of Sweden(-Finland) during the 14th century.

The crusade period 1025-1300

"The Finns are accustomed to skiing as fast as they wish, so that it is said that now they are close by and soon again they are far away. As soon as they have inflicted damage on the enemy, they rush away as swiftly as they came."
- Saxo Grammaticus: Gesta Danorum, 13th century

Rising Sweden - From a Borderland to a Part of a Great Power 1500-1700
The aftermath of the dissolution of Kalmar Union between Nordic Kingdoms, which had become beset by conflict between the aristocrats and civil unrest due to hard taxation and unjust administration, in 1523 led to the birth of more expansionist Sweden, with Finland as the eastern half. Danes were driven out of Finland with joint efforts of Finns and Swedes. Gustaf Vasa, the new King (1521-60), started Lutheran reformation in the early 16th century in Sweden and Finland (1527), and the Catholic Church consequently lost out to the Lutheran faith as it was declared to be the State religion. King gained control over much of the property of the Church. The central government around the King strengthened and modernized along lines learned from German states, a hereditary monarchy was introduced in 1544. The changes set in motion also a great rise in Finnish-language culture. Viipuri was established as Finland's second bishopric beside Turku in 1554. New Testament was translated into Finnish in 1548 by Mikael Agricola (1510-1557), the Bishop of Turku, who brought the Reformation to Finland and created written Finnish. The entire Bible was first translated into Finnish in 1642. During the 16th century Finland also became a prioritized part of the realm. The Vasa princes were even taught Finnish, and the Finnish nobility made great careers in the civil service and the army. During a war (1555-1557) against Ivan IV the Terrible of Russia, south-western part of Finland was given as a Duchy to the future King John (Johan) III, whose Renaissance court in Turku Castle brought some glory to the small town. Finnish language was widely used in the administration. Helsinki was founded in 1550 as a new trading post in southern Finland and a competitor to Tallinn, Hansa city on the opposite shore of the Gulf of Finland in Estonia. Finland often took alone care of the Eastern cardinal point as the "proper Swedes" stood against the Danes.
Repeated wars against Russia extended the areas in the east, but keeping up military readiness was hard for the heavily taxed Finnish peasantry. Peace of Teusina (1595), also recognising Swedish rule over northern Estonia, ended a 25 years long war but military service continued. Peasants had to support large army formations. Consequently, a civil uprising called the " nuijasota " (Cudgel War) (1596-97) was fought against the military demands and local nobility, the uprising was eventually suppressed hard. The rebels gathered troops in Pohjanmaa (Ostrobothnia) and inner Finland, southernmost parts of the country remained calm, partly due to more tight government control. The war happened simultaneously with and catalyzed by the struggle for the thrown of Sweden between King Sigismund and his uncle Duke Karl, catholic Sigismund was also King of Poland. Sigismund's Polish connection could have been valuable for Finland as an ally against Russia and for trade. Thus, the Finnish nobility led by Klaus Fleming, governor of Finland and marshal of the Swedish army, largely took the side of the King Sigismund. Therefore, their opponent Duke Karl encouraged the discontented Finnish peasantry into an open revolt. Fleming was also preparing an army to invade Sweden proper, but his health was not too good. Duke Karl was backed by the majority of nobility, the Protestant Church and Diet in Sweden. Fleming was not very popular among the Swedish aristocracy even if he had been a succeful general, admiral and administrator. Consequently, Karl's victory in Sweden, Sigismund was dethroned in 1598, and Fleming's premature death led to punitive measures against the weakened Finnish nobility. Soon, many of the government officials in Finland were replaced by Swedes, who mostly were unable to speak Finnish. Thus, first the rebelling Finnish peasantry was punished by the local nobles and then the Finnish aristocracy was punished for opposing the "usurper" Duke Karl.

Gustaf II Adolf, possibly the internationally best known Swedish King, triumphantly led Sweden to the Thirty years' war (1618-48). The army consisted originally largely of native Swedes and Finns with only some mercenaries fighting as far south as Bavaria. The campaign probably saved the Lutheran faith in northern Germany, but it also caused terrible damage and suffering long remembered. The Finnish cavalry, known as hakkapeliittas, fought successfully and spread fear among the Catholic Imperial troops who're used to more old-fashioned and rigid warfare. There is evidence that the ordinary Central Europeans made a difference between Swedish and Finnish troops, both native to the Swedish kingdom, during the war. The following territorial conquests from Denmark, Russia and German states raised Sweden(-Finland) to a great power status for a hundred years. Sweden was a small but efficient country and seized the opportunities. Thus, Sweden extended its realm around the Baltic and managed, due to the weakness of Russia, to push the Finnish border further east in Karelia and the Baltics; during the Russian " time of troubles" at the beginning of 17th century Jacob de la Gardie ("Lazy Jaakko" for his Finnish soldiers) occupied Moscow, in support of Vasili Shuiskii as the Czar against competitors, for a while and also ruled in Novgorod before the new Czar from Romanov family was chosen and a peace was made. Wars had, however, devastated areas in Karelia. Many Orthodox Christian Karelians emigrated to the Tver region near Moscow. Migration between Sweden and Finland was also continuous, some Finns formed communities in Sweden-proper. Sweden had also a short-lived, partly Finnish populated, colony called New Sweden, in the Delaware region in Northern America.

With the consolidation of the administration in Stockholm, uniform Swedish rule was extended to Finland during the 17th century. Accordingly, Sweden-Swedes were often appointed to high offices in Finland, which strengthened the position of the Swedish language in Finland on the cost of native Finnish culture. Also, the incidents of the earlier "Cudgel War" had not helped the Finnish upper class aspirations for better position within the Kingdom. In the army, however, Finns continued to make a significant contribution. It is also worth to note that the new areas in the East were "won lands" and for long time did not have the same rights as the rest of Finland in Swedish Kingdom. Aristocrats, who had been successful leaders in wars and administration, received large land estates in Sweden and Finland, which posed a threat to the freedom of the peasantry. First aristocracy won privileges and power also from the King, later high civil servants (often members of aristocracy) gained power. Finally, during the latter part of 17th century, the "Reduction" diminished the land holdings and power of aristocracy and benefited farmers to some extent. Hard military service and famines (1696-98) caused by disastrous weather conditions, during the temporarily deteriorated climate of the "little ice age", decreased the population significantly. Moreover, restrictions on tar and other trade for the benefit of Stockholm made the commercial development in Finland slow. Wars continued, e.g. while Sweden engaged Denmark, Russians attacked in 1656-58 to free the Orthodox Christians from the Swedish rule ("War of Rupture", "ruptuurisota") and had to be repulsed by minor native forces. As a result, more Orthodox Christian Karelians fled to Russia, Lutheranism strengthened its position in Finnish Karelia and Ingria (a small Baltic-Finnic province at the bottom of the Gulf of Finland). Therefore, being part of a great power was not always prosperous time for Finland, the people paid a high price for being part of a great power. Count Peter Brahe, however, as the general governor (1637-40, 1648-54) significantly helped to develop Finland and the infrastructure. New towns were founded and postal system established. Moreover, the Academy of Turku was founded in 1640 creating the foundation for Finnish university education. First paper mill began operations in Finland in 1667. Swedish Kings from Gustaf Vasa till the dissolution of Sweden(-Finland) 1809
1521-1560 Gustaf I Vasa
1560-1568 Erik XIV (son of Gustaf Vasa)
1568-1592 Johan III (son of Gustaf Vasa)
1592-1599 Sigismund (son of Johan III)
1599-1611 Karl IX (son of Gustaf Vasa)
1611-1632 Gustaf II Adolf (son of Karl IX)
1632-1654 Kristina
1654-1660 Karl X Gustaf
1660-1697 Karl XI
1697-1718 Karl XII
1718-1720 Ulrica Elenora
1720-1751 Fredrik I
1751-1771 Adolf Fredrik
1771-1792 Gustaf III
1792-1809 Gustaf IV

Financial Management at Hдme Castle in the Mid-sixteenth Century (from 1539 to about 1570) by Anna-Maria Vilkuna

Peace treaty of Teusina (Tдyssinд) in 1595 between Sweden and Russia

16th century events and 17th century events from Agricola network in Finnish

Swedish war history - a timeline in Swedish

History of firearms in Sweden(-Finland)

Some history of Ingria between Finland and Russia

The Salary for The Sin is Death - Witchcraft in Finland by Heikkinen, Kervinen and Nenonen.

Medieval Castles of Finland from FINFO

Maps of Finland as part of Sweden from FINFO

"The Finnish people are so experienced in the shipwrightґs craft that they can build vessels which are as strong and durable, yes, perhaps even better than those which I have seen built by the Venetians with their brilliant gifts in this field."
- Olaus Magnus, Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus, 1555

"Finlande is called a fayre countrye, because it is more pleasanter than Swecia. Much wine is transported thither, out of Spayne, by the sea Balthic, which people of the Countrye much desireth, to exhillerat their myndes...The Finnons have continual warres wyth the Muscovites in the arm or bosome of the sea Finnonicus: using in Summer the ayde of Shyppes, and in Wynther they combat upon Ise ..."
- George North, 1561

Mikael Agricola (1510-57)
Lutheran reformist and linguist
(Source: National Board of Antiquities*)

Gustaf II Adolf (King 1611-32)
"Lion of the North"
(Source: National Board of Antiquities*)


Louhisaari Manor, built 1655. Home of Fleming and later Mannerheim family.
(Source: National Board of Antiquities*)




Later Swedish Rule - Rising Russia and National Identity 1700-1809
Peter the Great reformed and developed Russia into a great power to reckon with. Russia wanted to expand and gain an access to the Baltic Sea. A clash with Sweden was inevitable. In 1700 Denmark, Poland, Saxony and Russia declared war on Sweden starting the Great Northern War (1700-1721). Young King Karl XII led, after magnificent victories elsewhere (he won a much larger Russian army at Narva in 1700, forced the Danes to peace, defeated the Saxony, won and dethroned the Polish king in 1706), the army deep into Russia and Ukraine where the loss in the Battle of Poltava in 1709 marked the beginning of the end of great power period. Sweden had reached the limit of its strength by fighting half of Europe at the same time and by entering the Russian winter. A plague killed two thirds of the population of Helsinki, which was still only a small town, in 1710. Because Sweden was in war with several countries Finland had to send some 60,000 soldiers out of the earlier famine beaten population of 300,-400,000 to fight all over Baltic rim and Russia, only around 10,000 survived intact to defend Finland. In total, Sweden lost some 200,000 soldiers in combat, decease, and famines out of population around 2 millions. Consequently, Russia briefly occupied most of Finland, the period known as "great wrath" (1713-21). Occupying Russian troops behaved originally relentlessly, later better, many nobles and wealthy people fled to western Sweden not to return. Some Finns fought the Russians as guerillas (they were called as "kivekkддt" after one leader from Ingria). The main part of the remaining Finnish army was destroyed in a snow storm during the Norwegian campaign of Karl XII in 1718, during which he also died. The following peace of Uusikaupunki (1721) ceded large parts of Karelia to Russia, the border came very close to the current Finnish eastern border. Population had been severely diminished and impoverished by the war, famines, occupation, territorial losses and plague. St.Petersburg, new capital of Russia, was founded in the middle of largely Finnish populated Ingria in 1703.
Sweden had not, however, given up its hopes for still being a great power and soon another war , the "War of the Hats" (1741-43) named after adventurous politics by the "Hat" party as opposed to the peace politics of the "Nightcaps" party, lead to additional losses in the peace treaty of Turku in 1743. The Swedish army was not any more either well prepared or motivated. In the course of the War the Russian empress Elizabeth declared to the Finnish people her intention of making Finland a separate state under Russian suzerainty. She failed to follow up the idea, but it found favour with some Finns. Another war followed, Sweden attacked Prussia (1757-62) during the Seven Years war, better known as the "War of Pomerania" ("Pommerin sota") in Finland, which came to nothing but an expensive campaign. Finnish soldiers brought potato from Germany back home, though it had been tried already a decade ago. Sweden made one more attempt against Russia during the "Gustavian era" (1772-1809). The "Theater King" Gustav III, who also had reimposed mild absolutism in Sweden in 1772, tried to alter the verdict of the Great Northern War by declaring war against Russia in 1788. The campaign failed partly due to a significant incident, mutiny of a group of Finnish military officers (the Anjala League) who were weary of Finland serving as a battleground between Sweden and Russia. Because of successful defence including famous sea battles at Svensksund and Russia's simultaneous involvement in a war with the Ottoman Empire, Sweden was able to secure a stalemate settlement in 1790 in the Treaty of Vдrдlд. Thus, Sweden was no longer a great power and it began to put more effort to internal politics and infrastructure, which was a good thing as such.

Free market economics began to develop and a Finnish economist (really a priest) Antti Chydenius published a study on economics in 1765 somewhat similar to Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations (1776) before him, in Swedish. Politicians from Finland often played a leading role during the Parliamentarian times (1723-72), eg Count Arvid Horn (from the "Nightcaps" party) was Chancellor in 1721-38. In the end of the century Gustav Mauritz Armfelt became the leading councilor at King Gustav III - and then later the Russian emperor's councilor-in-chief for Finnish affairs. Legislation was significantly developed in 1734, the "Law of 1734" remained partially long in force in Finland. The agrarian settlement pattern changed, from more closed villages to widely scattered family farms, because of an "enclosure movement" or "big reallocation" (isojako), started in 1757 with the objective of replacing the old system of strip-farming with a more efficient system of integrated and independent landholdings. The more peaceful era also created rapid population growth, even if need for labour was often greater than supply. First newspaper in Finnish, Tieto-Sanomat, was published in 1776. Moreover, a Finnish national identity, clearly separate from what people felt in proper Sweden, began to develop, but the people remained loyal to the throne that served them reasonably well by the standards of 18th century. The government also started to take Finnish language more seriously, new notes had both Swedish and Finnish text. Finland was still the eastern half of the Swedish Kingdom, a smaller and poorer but also rich in common culture and strong people. 18th century events from Agricola network in Finnish
What Finland was before 1809 in Finnish by Ohto Manninen

Suomenlinna - the Gibraltar of Norden

Art of the Gustavian Era at Ateneum, the Museum of Finnish Art

Map of Sweden's possessions and losses during the 17th and 18th century.

Time of Chydenius in Finnish

"Their [Finns] character can tolerate cold and toil and what many a nation would consider to be insufferable famine."
- Christian Friedrich Weber, Das verдnderte Russland, 1721

"The climate is severe; there is scarcely any spring or autumn, but there are nine months of winter in the year... The people ... live to a good old age when they do not undermine their constitutions by the abuse of strong drink..."
- Voltaire, Histoire de Charles XII (description of Sweden and Finland) 1731

Old Finnish sauna, an important part of national heritage.
(Source: The Finnish Sauna Society)


Russian Rule 1809-1917
After Sweden lost its position as a great power Russian pressure on Finland increased. Swedish government was often more interested in the western affairs and left the eastern defence into Finnish hands with inadequate funding. Emperor Alexander I promised Napoleon in Tilsit (1807) to persuade Sweden to join an anti-British alliance. When this failed, Russia invaded and eventually conquered whole of Finland in the strategically badly led war of 1808-1809 with Sweden leading the two parts of the Kingdom on separate ways. Russian forces attacked Finland February 21, 1808. Due to intelligence reports the army in Finland had been mobilized since three weeks, and initially the war went satisfactorily. But then the sea fortress of Sveaborg (Suomenlinna) surrendered without a fight in May, after less than two months of siege during which they did not receive any real information how the war was going. The educated classes in Finland (i.e. clergy, landowners and administrators - mostly Swedish speaking) seem to have been comfortable with the idea of Finland possibly becoming part of the Russian empire. The peasantry, however, was afraid of becoming enserfed as the Estonians had been. Thus, the peasantry organized guerilla units behind Russian lines, sometimes cooperating with the Swedish army, but with the winter the guerilla warfare stopped. The remaining Finnish troops surrendered by the spring, when the Russians had advanced into the Sweden proper and landed troops near Stockholm too, Sweden was convinced that it would better be in good relations with Russia. Sweden had to seek peace and in the Peace Treaty of Hamina in September 1809 the whole of Finland was joined to Russia. The peace was preceded by a revolution in Stockholm and the Diet in Porvoo in March, where the Estates of Finland declared their will to come under Russian rule. One of Napoleon's marshals, Bernadotte, became the heir to the thrown of Sweden in 1810, and his descendants rule Sweden to this day. After the defeat of Napoleon Sweden was compensated with Norway .
During the Swedish period, Finland was usually only a group of eastern provinces and not a national entity. When Russia annexed Finland in 1809 it became an autonomous Grand Duchy. Earlier lost eastern parts of Finland around Viipuri ("old Finland") were also returned in 1811, this brought the Finnish border near St.Petersburg. Much of the Swedish-era legislation was kept and self-rule granted. Some say that the old (Gustavian) tradition survived better in Finland than Sweden. Russian government may have wanted to experiment with reforms and it also wanted to create goodwill, as Finland might otherwise proven to be difficult to administer. All this and, what it may have seemed, the end of period of repeated wars Finland being a buffer between Sweden and Russia, made the transition from Sweden to Russian Empire for many people relatively easy to accept.

The Grand Duke was the Russian Emperor, whose representative in Finland was a Governor General. Finland's own highest governing body was the Senate, whose members were exclusively Finns. Matters pertaining to Finland were presented to the Emperor in St. Petersburg by the Finnish Minister Secretary of State. Thus, the administration of Finland was handled directly by the Emperor and the Russian authorities were therefore unable to interfere. Finns were, however, able to make careers inside the Russian administration and many served especially in the army, Finland gave Russia several generals and admirals. Two governors of Alaska were of Finnish origin before it was sold to the USA. The role of Czar as a constitutional monarch in Finland was much in contrast with his role in other parts of the Russian empire. Peaceful Finland was also able to keep the autonomy long whereas many others, like for example rebelling Poles, lost their bits of home-rule. Finland gained experience of co-existence with Russia and the loyalty of Finns was slowly shifted towards the Czar but with increasing sense of national identity and need for autonomy.

When Emperor Alexander I, Grand Duke of Finland in 1809-1825, gave Finland extensive autonomy he effectively created the Finnish state. The Lutheran Church retained its position, and so did Swedish as the official language. Helsinki was made the capital of Finland instead of Turku in 1812, and the University was also moved to Helsinki in 1828 after a severe fire in Turku. Kalevala , the Finnish national epic, was first published by Lцnnrot in 1835. The first Finnish railway, between Helsinki and Hдmeenlinna, was opened in 1862. A Language Decree issued in 1863 by Alexander II marked the beginning of the process through which Finnish became an official administrative language. At the beginning of the Russian rule the administration was largely taken care by the Finnish civil servants without a real mandate from the people, represented by the Diet that did not have meetings for few decades ("night of statehood"). The reasons for this may have been the reluctancy of the Czar and the will of the civil service to build the country without complicating parliament. Soon the need for new legislation and more effective representation of the estates became clear. The Diet convened in 1863 after a break of more than half a century, since then the Diet met regularly starting active legislative work in Finland. Furthermore, largely thanks to the important developer of Finnish society and state secretary of finance Johan Vilhelm Snellman (1806-1881), Finland got its own currency, Markka, in 1860. Economic development accelerated and business became less controlled. The Conscription Act of 1878 even gave Finland an army of its own, the country had several features of an independent nation. To sum up, the mid-19th century was generally a peaceful period for Finland except for minor incidents during the Crimean War (1854-56).

In contrast to the early peaceful progress as a Grand Duchy, the late 19th century marked the rising of Slavophilic thought and integration of the Russian empire implying hard times for the Finnish autonomy. Finns used mostly the methods of passive resistance but also violence occurred. A strong proponent of Russification, Governor General Bobrikov, was assassinated by a son of a Finnish senator in 1904. The first period of oppression (1899-1905), which for example closed down separate Finnish army and made the administration more open to Russians, ended soon after the Russian defeat in war against Japan. Also domestic problems forced the Russian government to appease Finns.

Two political factions emerged: the "Constitutionalists" (the Swedish Party and the Young Finnish Party), who were strongly against illegal enactments; and the "Compliers" (the Old Finnish Party), who were ready to appease in everything that did not, in their opinion, affect Finland's vital interest. Labour unions started to grow too, the general strike of 1905 was a strong expression of opinion. Also a Social Democratic party was born, they wrote a policy paper in 1903 demanding for several social changes. The peaceful period before the second era of oppression (1908-17) allowed Finland, fortunately, to develop its democracy creating unicameral right to vote for all adult citizens. Thus, granting also women full political rights, suffrage and eligibility to run for the Diet , as the first country in Europe in 1906; the Finnish administration got the first female Members of the Parliament in the world.

Finnish music, literature and arts in general rose to new heights by such persons as Jean Sibelius and Akseli Gallen-Kallela, and many others. In the early Olympic games Finland formed a separate team from Russia and gained more medals than the vastly larger empire. Moreover, peace and development further increased population growth and a wave of emigration to the USA and other distant countries followed. Industrialization started slowly, Finland remained fairly agrarian in comparison with western European countries despite the growth of forest industry and first steps in mining etc. During the 1910's the Russification development was abruptly intensified and the 1st World War shifted the attention to other events. Finnish nationalists began to plan partition of Finland from Russia and sent nearly 2000 men for training in the German army, the "Jдgers" (Jддkдrit) who fought their war in the Baltic front. Therefore, some Finns fought on both the Russian and German side, which caused some friction among the military officers after independence. Russian emperors as the Grand Dukes of the Grand Duchy of Finland
Alexander I (1809-25)
Nicholas I (1825-55)
Alexander II (1855-81)
Alexander III (1881-94)
Nicholas II (1894-1917)

Solemn Assurance by the Emperor Alexander in 1809 to respect constitutional rights of citizens in the newly acquired Grand Duchy of Finland.

Napoleon Bonaparte's Role in Finnish, Swedish and Russian Foreign Policy, 1801-1814 by Sarah Hale.

The Gracious Manifesto of the Imperial Majesty in 1899

History of the Helsinki Senate Square by Frank Hellstйn (Finfo)

Maps of Finland as part of Russia from FINFO

Travels in Finland in the 1870s - Illustrations from the book of the same name by Zachris Topelius (1818-1898), written by Joe Brady FINFO

"Serious, reserved and fond of a retired life."
- The Oxford Encyclopedia, 1828

"It would be difficult to find a town [Helsinki] of 80 000 inhabitants in England so clean, so bright, with such museums, libraries, and public buildings. Even Bedford is not as educational as Helsingfors, nor is Brighton so well served with social amusements, concerts and theatres."
- A.M.C. Clive-Bailey, Vignettes from Finland, or Twelve Months in Strawberry Land, 1895

Finnish currency: First markka note from 1860
(Source: Bank of Finland*)

Ainola (1904), home of composer Jean Sibelius
(Source: City of Jдrvenpдд*)

Aleksis Kivi (1834 - 1872)
The first significant professional writer in Finnish
(Source: National Board of Antiquities*)



Early Independence 1917-39
Finland was not directly involved in the World War I (1914-1918), although Russian troops were garrisoned in the country. In 1917 Russia plunged into the chaos of Revolution: Finland seized the opportunity on December 6, 1917, Parliament approved the declaration of independence drawn up by the Senate under the leadership of Pehr Evind Svinhufvud (1861-1944). Soviet Russia, Lenin and Stalin among the leaders, soon recognised the independence. Soviet leaders had high hopes for a successful revolution in Finland too and some 40,000 Russian soldiers remained in Finland. Worryingly at the same time, the breach between the parties of the left and the right had become hostile. At the end of January 1918, the leftwing parties staged a coup forcing the rightwing government to flee from Helsinki to Vaasa. The development was an unhappy mixture of freedom fight and revolutionary activism. The "Reds" wanted to create a socialistic Finland, possibly in union with emerging Soviet Russia.
The ensuing bitter Civil War between the "Red" militia in the south and "White" government, assisted by some Swedish and Norwegian volunteers, based in middle and northern parts of the country ended in May 1918 with victory for the government troops. "White" troops were led by General Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim (1867-1951), who had made an impressive career in the Russian army. The backbone of the "White" army consisted of few officers trained in the imperial Russia and the "Jдgers" who returned from Germany. The bulk of the armies consisted, however, of poorly trained and armed conscripts. A German infantry division and naval forces helped the "Whites" upon invitation by conquering Helsinki and some other coastal areas, but the decisive battle of Tampere was fought already earlier, and some Russian troops sided and aided the "Reds". At the dawn of independence Finland had a population of some 3,000,000, of which 30,000 perished in the civil war and related terror by both sides, more defeated "Reds" than "Whites" died (there still exists disagreement on what the war should be called: independence, rebellion, freedom, civil, or something else).

When the order was restored, prior to new elections, the planning for a new constitution and government began. First the idea of creating a Kingdom , like the other Nordic countries, found support in the "rump" Parliament. They chose Friedrich Karl, Prince of Hesse, the son-in-law of German Emperor Wilhelm II, to be the king "Vдinц I". In few weeks the collapse of Germany in the First World War made this project void reducing German influence on Finnish politics. The parties with republican orientation won the parliamentary elections in March 1919. Thus, Finland became a Republic in the summer of 1919; Kaarlo Juho Stеhlberg (1865-1952) was elected as the first President (1919-25). The breach between classes caused by the War was alleviated by conciliatory measures such as including the Social Democrats in the government; in 1926-1927 SDP formed a minority government. The land ownership was changed by a law in 1918 and 1922 ("Lex Kallio"), which made it possible for the tenants and small farmers to acquire more land.

Finland chose not to play active part in the Russian revolution, some domestic and foreign wishes for supporting the White Russian forces where swept aside, though voluntary troops participated in military campaigns in Eastern Karelia and helped to create independent Estonia. Soon, having tempered down bold thoughts of creating a greater Finland, the Peace of Dorpat (Tartto) was made with Russia in 1920, also a non-aggression pact with Soviet Union was signed in 1932. In the Peace Treaty, Finland, among other things, gave up territorial claims in Soviet Karelia, confirmed the rights to Petsamo (Petchenga) with nickel deposits at the Arctic coast and received a promise that Soviet Union will respect the rights of the Fenno-Ugrians in the neighbouring areas, which never became reality under Stalin's reign. (Remaining Ingrians have been allowed to migrate to Finland during the 1990's.) Friction with the Soviet regime continued, however, eg during the 1920's espionage activity was vivid in Finland. After the war Finland prospered and grouped with the other neutral Nordic countries. Also, German sympathies were notable, but not uncritical. Several politicians favored more the Western, Anglophile, orientation. The press had a critical tone towards both the development in Germany and Soviet Union.

Еland islands caused a major test for Finnish diplomacy. When Finland declared its independence the majority of the Swedish speaking population of the islands voted to join Sweden. During the Civil War the islanders saw in turn Russian, White, Swedish, Red and German troops. The Finnish government did not wish to see Еland to join Sweden, culturally there was much in common but historically the islands were close to Finland. The issue was addressed at the League of Nations, which peacefully solved the dispute in favour of Finland, but the islands got an extensive autonomy.

At domestic level, all kind of social activity was vivid, professional groups, political parties, sports enthusiasts, women, voluntary armed defence supporters and many others founded associations to further their interests and development. Fennoman movement was fairly strong, but Finland kept and still has both Finnish and Swedish as official languages. Many people with Swedish family name, however, changed their name into a Finnish one. In the early 1930's fascism emerged and the domestic Lapua-movement attempted a coup d'etat in 1932 ("Mдntsдlдn kapina"). Coup clearly failed and the movement was banned by using the laws the movement had been eager to push into force for banning the Communist Party and its followers earlier (1930). An extreme right party (IKL ), however, was formed but it never gained widespread support and Finnish fascism remained a marginal phenomenon. A peculiar part of the early extreme right activity was to kidnap and transport opposing politicians to the Soviet border ("kyyditykset"). Social Democratic Party, the Conservatives, the Agrarian Party and the Swedish People's Party played the key roles in political life. Communists stayed mostly underground, largely led from Moscow, during the inter war period.

The depression of 1930's hit also Finland, but the two decades after the independence were generally good time and the nation learned to be a democratic independent nation among nations. Moreover, agriculture dominated economy started to industrialize faster; agriculture continued to be the backbone of the economy but the lumber industry led the growth and development, and its success fuelled progress in other sectors. Exports of forest industry products to UK and other countries grew bringing more capital into the country; mining and stronger capital intensive metal industries emerged. Migration from the countryside to towns and abroad continued. Prohibition law (1919-32) banning the consumption of alcohol was also tried and failed in Finland. Regents during the first years of independence
Pehr Evind Svinhufvud (1918)
Carl Gustav Emil Mannerheim (1918-19)

Presidents of the republic of Finland

Kaarlo Juho Stеhlberg (1919-25)
Lauri Kristian Relander (1925-31)
Pehr Evind Svinhufvud (1931-37)
Kyцsti Kallio (1937-40)
Risto Heikki Ryti (1940-44)
Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim (1944-46)
Juho Kusti Paasikivi (1946-56)
Urho Kaleva Kekkonen (1956-81)
Mauno Henrik Koivisto (1982-94)
Martti Oiva Kalevi Ahtisaari (1994-2000)
Tarja Kaarina Halonen (2000- )

"Like a chasm runs the border.
In front, Asia, the East;
In back, Europe, the West:
Like a sentry, I stand guard."
- Uuno Kailas, in a poem

"Countries are like people: by their very existence they exalt or deflate the opinions one would like to have of oneself. When I return from Finland, I feel younger and livelier; I make great plans, I like many things in the world and, what is more, I like myself a little better."
- Georges Duhamel, Chant du Nord, 1929

"White general" C.G.E. Mannerheim in 1918.
(Source: University of Tampere*)

A stamp for "the Flying Finn" Paavo Nurmi, maybe the best runner ever, winning 3000 m in the Olympic games in Paris in 1924
(Source: Stampville - Finland Post Ltd*)

Declaration of independence in Finnish

Events of 1918 in Finnish

An essay on the Civil war in English from the US Congress Library

Brief introduction to the Finnish democratical development during the 20th century from FINFO

Before the War: Finland, Stalin and Germany in 1930s by Timo Vihavainen

Maps of Independent Finland from FINFO

The Many Karelias- The Karelian question in Finnish history by Pekka Nevalainen (Finfo)



Three Finnish Wars of WWII 1939-45
Finland fought three interconnected wars during the Second World War. First was the "Winter War" (1939-40) against Soviet Union (hereafter SU) after its aggression, second "Continuation War" (1941-44) alongside Germany against SU in attempt to reconquer and secure the eastern areas, and third "Lapland War" (1944-45) against Germany to drive its forces out of northern Finland. The WW II had an important impact on the development of Finland as the most of the world.
Finnish troops were better prepared for harsh Winter conditions and tactically very capable during the Winter War (1939-40); but short of armament and ammunition, and all but infinitely outnumbered.
(Source: Matti Yrjцlд*)
Finnish army stopped and counter-attacked the Soviet invasion during the summer 1944 in Tali-Ihantala and other places too, many Soviet tanks were destroyed using modern German antitank weapons - Winter War Molotov's cocktail had become nearly obsolete against new armor.
(Source: Matti Yrjцlд*)
In the spring of 1938, a Soviet diplomat approached the Finnish foreign minister, with the intent of opening secret discussions to “improve relations” between the two nations in light of the worsening international situation. Officially Soviets mainly demanded a "buffer zone" at the Karelian Isthmus in exchange for some forested land further north, naval bases and acceptance of Soviet military "aid" to protect Leningrad (St.Petersburg) from attack via (or by) Finland. Leningrad was located near the Finnish border and despite the repeated Finnish promises of strict neutrality (a concept which Stalin never seemed to really value or understand) and Finnish government's willingness to minor concessions Soviets increased the pressure. The Soviet attitude was hostile and the offers or demands were considered to be impossible to meet by the Finnish side; neutrality, sovereignty and credibility were not to be sacrificed in exchange for (temporarily) lifted pressure. Finland's fate was sealed by the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact between Soviet Union and Germany in August 1939, and especially by its secret division of Europe into Soviet and German interest spheres. In north Soviet sphere included eastern Poland, Baltic states and Finland.
All but Finland had de facto fallen, Baltic countries kept nominal independence till 1940, by the late autumn 1939. Thus, a year and half later, after multiple rounds of negotiations in Helsinki and Moscow, four Soviet armies attacked Finland on November 30, 1939 at 06.50 AM without a declaration of war, most likely to occupy Finland and replace the Finnish government with a puppet regime. This "Terijoki government", led by O-W Kuusinen, was installed as soon as Red Army held some Finnish border soil. Stalin thought that the Finnish workers and leftists would join the Soviets, which was a mistake as most of the nation stood united behind sovereignty, the "spirit of the Winter War" was born. The workers' newspaper Sosialisti (The Socialist) called the Terijoki government "an Asiatic joke". Western democracies gasped and appalled but were unable to offer much else than sympathy, few volunteers helped the Finnish army, and expel SU from the League of Nations. Sweden agreed to take care of a large number of Finnish children as refugees. Governments of France and UK slowly planned an operation to send a small force to help Finland against SU. The real purpose of the troops would probably have been to cut the shipping of iron ore from Northern Sweden to Germany, on the excuse of maintaining communications from Finland to Norwegian ports, but Norway and Sweden denied the right to transit. Had the plan been implemented UK and SU might have ended fighting each other instead of being allied. Germany looked away, even stopped arms shipments from Italy to Finland, as Hitler and Ribbentrop had given SU rights to occupy Finland.

Stalin and Soviet generals expected the Red Army to be in Helsinki in few weeks, and the Soviet troops made initially good progress due to surprise, though there was some intelligence information on the Red army movements and defensive preparations too, and the sheer volume of the attack. Soviet forces had been given orders not to cross the border to Sweden once they had marched through Finland. However, to world's surprise, the Soviet attack was stalled and in many places thrown back with great casualties. Encirclement, motti, battles were fought along the few roads leading from the long Finnish border to the inland: whole Soviet divisions were wiped out and their equipment captured adding significant help to the otherwise ill-equipped Finnish armed forces. Main contributors to these victories were the fighting spirit of the Finnish troops and the skillful tactics in the frozen forests on the road-bound attackers, and Soviet incompetence. Consequently, Hitler and many German generals thought that beating the red army was not such a difficult task, a costly mistake; SU rewrote its infantry doctrine based on the Winter War experience and later Wehrmacht learned to know the better educated "Generals of January and February".

After Finland had beaten the first attacks Soviet Union changed the commanders leading the attack as well as tactics. Turning to their absolute superiority in air power, artillery and tanks and sheer manpower (over 1,000,000 men from Arctic to Gulf of Finland, of which about 600,000 on the Karelian Isthmus) the new attack in February gradually wore down the thin Finnish defense on the Karelian isthmus forcing the defenders to withdraw. On the Karelian isthmus, along the famous Mannerheim line, the fighting resembled more of the First World War massive frontal attacks than the mobile encirclement battles fought elsewhere on the fronts. Lack of artillery, ammunitions and reserves made the breaching of the main defensive line inevitable. Meanwhile, SU feared an intervention by the western democracies and wanted to end the humiliating war, Finland was just barely able to hold the front while renewed peace negotiations went on. Thus, Stalin abandoned the puppet government at Terijoki. Possible Western military aid seemed to come too late and be too little to change anything. Some newer, still controversial, evidence seems to indicate that few persons in Finnish and German governments had secret discussions already in 1940; the Germans urged Finns to make peace now so that they could later get their pay-back with interest. The Winter War had also a wide media coverage and one of the first real war press rooms for international correspondents. Soviet Union got plenty of bad publicity.

In March Finland decided to accept the heavy peace rules dictated by SU, Finland lost one-tenth of its territory, including Viipuri (Vyborg) and Hanko as a rented base for Soviet navy, among other things but kept its independence. Some important ones of the pre-war Soviet demands, like a commitment to accept Soviet military "aid", were not forced upon Finland. Ce

, , - 2000-08-03 14:40:08 - host: txmac27.pc.helsinki.fi (128.214.19.84)


2000 год, седьмая луна
С Небес спускается великий правитель страха
Воскрес великий правитель Моисей, посланник богов
Перед будущим Марс будет править в соответствии с предсказанием
санскритского учения.

Нострадамус, глава 10, центурия 72

МиссионерЪ, , - 2000-08-03 14:40:01 - host: goliath5.primary-server.net (216.71.84.142)


Я бля где-то читал, что через пару дней марсиане должны умереть ибо нет у них иммунитета к земным вирусам. А на Кавказе надо зачистку сделать, вакуумные бомбы там..., гнилые зубы Ханну.

Хрдличек, , - 2000-08-03 14:37:56 - host: 212.44.131.72 (212.44.131.72)


2

Алиев заехал в сарай, закрыл за собой ворота и запер их на засов. Прошел в избу. Изба была русская, а обстановка, по возможности, азербайджанская. На стене висел восточный ковер. Под ковром - диван-кровать, застеленная полосатым покрывалом. В углу - резная расписная тумбочка с орнаментом. На тумбочке - бронзовая ваза с длинным узким горлышком. На другой стене - чеканка, аллегорическое изображение Баку в виде лица азербайджанской женщины и нефтяной вышке. Еще в комнате был застланый ковриком сундук и сейф.
Мурат Рашидович повертел на пальце четки и сунул их в карман, а из кармана вытащил перетянутую резинкой пачку денег и ключ от сейфа. Убрал деньги в сейф и прошел в кухню. Приготовил чай. Вышел с пиалой на крыльцо, сел на ступеньку.
Он пил чай, глядя в потемневшее небо и думал об Азербайджане, о своей тяжелой доле, о бизнесе и о Гейдаре Алиеве. Многие в деревне спрашивали Мурата - не родственник ли он азербайджанскому лидеру. И Мурат терпеливо всем объяснял, что Алиев в Азербайджане -все равно, что Иванов у русских.
Алиев поставил пиалу на ступеньку, сунул руку под крыльцо, вытащил оттуда целлофановый пакет с травкой и пачкой папирос Беломор. Вот это и был его настоящий бизнес. Киоски Алиев держал для вида, они почти никакого дохода ему не приносили. А вот торговля травкой - другое дело. Рискованное, но достойное мужчины дело.
Мурат продул папиросу, заколотил коноплю и закурил. Почти сразу в голове посветлело. Жизнь перестала казаться односторонней и неприятной. Теперь он видел как бы ее всю целиком и она больше не отталкивала. Он посмотрел на появляющиеся в небе звезды, на полную луну, на Млечный Путь, и подумал, что вот человек живет в этом огромном мире, как блоха на теле собаки, живет-живет, пока собака живет, а потом собака сдохла и блоха сдохла, никому не хуже и не лучше:
Он добил косяк и прилег на крыльцо, чтобы удобнее было смотреть вверх. В школе он хотел стать космонавтом и полететь к звездам, потому что знал, что когда вырастет, такое будет уже возможно. ПЕРВЫЙ В МИРЕ АЗЕРБАЙДЖАНСКИЙ КОСМОНАВТ В КОСМОСЕ! Потом он повзрослел и понял, что космонавтами становятся немногие и он скорее всего космонавтом не станет. Тогда Алиев решил стать астрономом, открыть новую звезду и назвать ее ВЕНЕРА, по имени своей первой любви Венеры Фатыховны Тимургалеевой, с которой он учился в одном классе. Но еще через несколько лет он понял, что профессия астронома ему не подходит. Астроном - профессия не для всех, не каждый сможет всю жизнь заниматься скучными вещами, чтобы открыть что-нибудь и назвать ВЕНЕРОЙ, которая в космосе и так уже, оказывается, есть. Тем более Венера Тимургалеева к тому времени уже вышла замуж за жирного армяна Вартана Гукосяна:
Короче, когда Алиев вырос, он стал заниматься торговлей, как все взрослые азербайджанцы. И был доволен, пока не началась война в Карабахе. С этого момента все пошло наперекосяк: Но, слава Аллаху, вроде бы обратно стало помаленьку налаживаться:
Совсем стемнело и похолодало. Алиев поежился и решил вернуться в дом, попить там еще чаю, покурить и лечь спать. Его немного тусовало сидеть улице.

Азербиджански касманаут, горат Сонца, прекрасный страна А. - 2000-08-03 14:36:14 - host: cursa2.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.62)


ПришОл (с) Великий Гуру :)





Йо-

ри-
ки,
На
хуй :))


Сексопатолог, , - 2000-08-03 14:35:37 - host: cursa2.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.62)


И это у вас называется диалог...
тяжело вам :-)

Ыцарь, , - 2000-08-03 14:35:28 - host: corp.roel.ru (195.14.59.25)


Одна из основных проблем цивилизующего человека — превращение своих эмоций в более или менее соответствующие им и выражающие их мысли и слова: этим и занимается Марс. Говоря точнее, Марс работает над оформлением ментальной почвы, ее удобряя и приспосабливая иными образами для выращивания будущих пышных и полноценных ментальных садов и огородов. Конечно, трудно создать почву, на которой бы не вырос сорняк: в самые умные головы порой залетает преглупейшая мысль, но создать почву, на которой перспективную идею ожидает необходимая и разнообразная поддержка, вполне возможно — если, конечно, эта идея относится к теме, волнующей человека, а еще лучше — волновавшей его давно, так что эмоции частично отыграли и что-то, от них оставшееся, хочет воплотиться в словах, мыслях или мыслеобразах.

Важнейшая работа человека выражается, в частности, в умении выразить адекватными ментальными конструкциями свои чувства, по крайней мере, когда они активно того Требуют. Проработка дает, сверх того, возможность сформулировать и выразить чужие чувства, иногда целых коллективов, и тогда через стихи или прозу прорывается то, что в критике именуется правдой (жизни), и что имеет к истине очень слабое отношение, являясь в то же время необходимой данному коллективу правдой его группового эмоционального переживания — часто непонятной другим коллективам. Недаром хорошие стихи с таким трудом переводятся на другие языки: они слишком тесно связаны через язык с душой народа, понять которую иностранцу не может быть слишком легко.

МиссионерЪ, , - 2000-08-03 14:34:06 - host: goliath5.primary-server.net (216.71.84.142)


ГЛАВА ТРЕТЬЯ
АЛИЕВ
1

Мурат объехал киоски и вернулся домой затемно. В Бубне он жил один. Семья осталась в Азербайджане у родственников жены. Когда начались события в Карабахе, они решили уехать из родных мест. Мурат временно отправил жену с детьми к ее родственникам в Баку, а сам поехал в Россию, чтобы обустроиться там, а потом забрать семью. Но время сослужило плохую службу. Пока Мурат обустраивался, родственники жены обработали Фариду. Каждый день они говорили ей, что муж бросил ее и скрылся в России, где наверняка завел новую семью, потому что в России одни развратные женщин. А если человеку каждый день говорить одно и то же, он в конце концов начинает этому верить. И когда Мурат наконец-то купил дом, машину, завел хозяйство и можно было не стыдясь принять семью, он получил из Баку письмо. Жена писала, что она его проклинает за то, что он ее бросил, и никогда за это не покажет ему детей. Алиев был вне себя от горя и злости. Он собрался и поехал в Баку разобраться. Но родственники жены не пустили его к семье, сильно избили Мурата Рашидовича и пообещали, что если он сейчас же не уедет, закопать его живым. Алиев поверил - в Азербайджане с этим стало просто. Он уехал и теперь жил один, напяливая временных продавщиц. Если бы он был русский, то наверняка бы запил. А он был нерусский и поэтому только курил вечерами коноплю. Конопли здесь было много и стоила она недорого. (Недаром рок-группа "Собаки Лондона" отправилась под Тамбов на гастроли).

литцо прыятный наружносьты, , - 2000-08-03 14:28:17 - host: atik2.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.63)


Это моя Sakartvelo!

Гигиенишвили, трудящийся Востока, , - 2000-08-03 14:27:06 - host: 195.184.247.154 (195.184.247.154)



Пролетая над Череповцом...
Доблесные китайские космонавты рады приветствовать всех марсиан, сияющих как глаза Восточного Вождя из Страны Торчащего Солнца!
От имени большей половины человечества рады приветствовать признаки разума в столь неожиданном месте!
Рады будем наладить контакты по принципу "рис-территория", а так же в виде презента высылаем вам 1,5 млрд наших колонистов!
Орбитальная станция основывается на вашей орбите!

Китайская орбитальная станция Старый Дзе, , - 2000-08-03 14:26:51 - host: 12.1.88.100 (12.1.88.100)


Еще немного поЭзии ;-))



Маленьким йОрикам холодно зимой

К маленьким йОрикам мы пришли домой

Грустно, грустно, йОрики брЭдут

А грузины-марсиане остаются тут.


;-))

OPD, , - 2000-08-03 14:19:15 - host: draco.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.46)


Вай, грузински касманаут... генацвале Зураб! Тэбэ привет шлёт из сольничный Азербайджян твой калэга касманаут Алиев... вот его пэчальный историй:

КОСМИЧЕСКИЙ КУСОК КРАСНОГО БУБНА.
Алиев не был, конечно, коренным жителем Красного Бубна. Он приехал сюда из Нагорного Карабаха, спасаясь от войны. Пару лет работал в колхозе комбайнером, а когда колхоз развалился Алиев, как все азербайджанцы, занялся традиционным азербайджанским делом - торговлей. Он держал вдоль шоссе несколько коммерческих киосков. Фирма ООО "Южная Ночь". Бубновцы относились к Алиеву двойственно. С одной стороны он уже воспринимался ими как свой, но с другой стороны за глаза его критиковали за то, что чурбан. Так-то Алиев, в принципе, был неплохой мужик, давал деревенским в долг, не жадничал и шутки понимал: Но все-таки: айзер:

Лица кавказкий националнысти, Сникерс, Марс - 2000-08-03 14:18:03 - host: bellatrix.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.106)


Вот ведь народ! Ничего не понимает в колбасных обрезках...
Из Древней Истории Йориков:
"В период владычества Тьмы, Невежества и Прочих Древних Королей, с Серединного Запада в Мир вошел ЙЙООРИК - что на Древнем Наречии означало "Светлый и Звонкий"... и нёс Он Свет и весело звенели Бубенцы Его и улыбались Люди, и смягчались сердца и открывались души навстречу добру и свету...
И спросили его: как быть нам теперь - мы не хотим жить как прежде!
И ответил он: возрадуйтесь, с Благой Вестью пришёл я к вам. Я поведу вас в Страну Чухонию - лучшее место на Земле для Здоровых, Человечных и Ебанутых!!!
так начиналась Новая История ЗЧЕ. И возрадовались Йорики и погнали древних негопников... но нашлись и такие в ком жили Злоба, Зависть, Ёбнутость и Ненависть, и определено было изгнать их с Лика Земли, дабы не смущали они людей Ёбнутыми речами и поступками. Так им сделали. САМЫХ ЁБНУТЫХ услали на мАРС (о чём и повествуют марсианские хроники), а более-менее терпимых ёбнутных загнали высоко в горы по всей земле, где они обучились виноделию и долгожительству в бессильной злобе до тех пор пока в горы не провели интернет...

Ыцарь, , - 2000-08-03 14:16:10 - host: corp.roel.ru (195.14.59.25)


А Зураб здесь точно был! Мне рассказывала бабушка Нинель. Здесь должны быть следы! Не затопчите...

Хм_ырь, , Только Грузия и Марс - 2000-08-03 14:11:04 - host: atik2.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.63)


Хм_ырь, мы тут по-марсиански еще не очень.... Дай словарь общеупотребительных слов. ;-)) Или это по-грузински? так вроде не грузинские буквы-то ;-))

OPD, , - 2000-08-03 14:06:15 - host: atik2.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.63)


Софико!
Ты б не могла обои поменять? Меня эти пестренькие угнетают...

Хм_ырь, , Только Грузия и Марс - 2000-08-03 14:05:11 - host: atik2.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.63)


Блять! Ну почему у вас грузинская кодировка не поддерживается? Это дискриминация!

Хм_ырь, , Только Грузия и Марс - 2000-08-03 14:02:13 - host: cursa2.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.62)


Ластажопий, ну ти прям как сван какой-то, да? Тибе же сказали - у нас мыграция рас. Биседку разрушыли нимецкие далбаёбы. Зураб обищал починить, да пропал куда-то. Теперь мы иго ищем. Пока не найдём, будем жить здесь. Я на полном сырьёзе гаварю - он здесь где-то. Среди вас. Надо толька харашо поискать. У нас информация проверенный. Нам иё сам... страшно сказать даже кто рассказал. И вообще - Абхазия не Сакартвело, Йокерит - не команда, хоккейй - ваабще игра для имбецильных норвежцев. :) Бросай ти это дело, записывайся к марсианам в отряд. У них там аквалангистов любят. :)

Хм_ырь, уважай людей. :) Хоккейцы трудно думают - они марсианский не панимают.

Sofiko Kiknalidze, , - 2000-08-03 14:02:06 - host: 195.184.247.154 (195.184.247.154)


Это была инструкция по обращению с Ластоногайненном, если кто не понял. Аккуратнее его ..., он того, в чухонскую Красную книгу занесен ... ;-)))

OPD, , - 2000-08-03 14:01:35 - host: atik2.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.63)





[KPZ,click here, please!]

Капитан Грузинской Эскадрильи, , - 2000-08-03 14:00:31 - host: spica.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.103)


ю БНР ОНЯКСЬЮИРЕ, ЙЮЙ БНЯОЕБЮЕР ЙНЯЛХВЕЯЙСЧ цКСАХМС МЕХГБЕЯРМШИ СЙПЮХМЯЙХИ ОХХР...рПСДМН БЯЕ ОНМЪРЭ, МН НАЫЮЪ ХМРНМЮЖХЪ ЪЯМЮ...


цкхахмю

рХУЮ ДЮКХМЮ,
дХЙЮ ДХБХМЮ,
рНМЙЮ ЛЮЦЁЪ,
ІМЭ - Ё - ЪМЭ.

рХ - РХЯМЕ БНДХ ЛКЮ,
яХ - ЯХМЪ ЯХМЪБЮ ЯСЛМЮ,
юИ ЛЕМЕ РХ НАЁИМЪКЮ,
юИ ЦКХАХМЮ, ЦКХАХМЮ.

мЕМЮВЕ ДНЯКЁДМХЙ Ъ ОЮКЙН АЮФЮЧ
бРПСВЮРХЯЭ С МЮДПЮ РБНї.
І Ъ МЕ АНЧЯЪ, ВХ, ЛНФЕ, ГЮЦХМС,
вХ ЯРЮМС АЕГЯЛЕПРМХЛ.
рН ЛНФЕ ОНАЮВС Ъ ЯЙЮПАХ МЕГЛЁПМЁ,
ІЯРНРХ АЕГЛНБМЁ.
І ЯРЮМС РНАНЧ, ОПНГНПНЧ БНДНЧ,
аЕГЛЕФМХЛ ДПСЦХЛ ЦКХАХМНЧ.

рХ - РХЯМЕ БНДХ ЛКЮ,
яХ - ЯХМЪ ЯХМЪБЮ ЯСЛМЮ,
юИ ЛЕМЕ РХ НАЁИМЪКЮ,
юИ ЦКХАХМЮ, ЦКХАХМЮ.

уЛ_ШПЭ, , рНКЭЙН цПСГХЪ Х лЮПЯ - 2000-08-03 13:59:07 - host: draco.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.46)












Редкие и исчезающие животные России







Обыкновенный, или пятнистый, тюлень
Phoca (Phoca) vitulina vitulina





Отряд Ластоногие - Pinnipedia

Семейство Настоящие тюлени -
Phocidae


СТАТУС. Исчезающие виды (I категория)


Ареал обитания




Находится под
угрозой исчезновения.
Длина тела
250-160 см.Обитатель морей Северной
Атлантики.


Распространение. В российских водах
как Баренцева, так и Балтийского
морей находится периферийная часть
ареала европейскоатлантического
подвида обыкновенного тюленя.
Встречается он редко и главным образом в западной части побережья
Кольского полуострова, в Балтийском
море в водах Эстонии, Латвии и Литвы с полной достоверностью не установлен, в водах России (Калининградская обл.) также регулярно не
обитает, но не исключены случаи появления этих тюленей (3) . Вне пределов бывшего СССР ареал обыкновенного тюленя охватывает побережье
Норвегии, Великобритании, Ирландии,
Исландии, а также Оркнейские, Гебридские, Шетландские и Фарерские
острова, обычен у побережья Нидерландов, Германии, на юг спускается
до Португалии (1, 3) . Западно-атлантическая популяция населяет побережье Северной Америки от 32 до
76 град. с. ш., где тюлени наиболее
многочисленны у Новой Шотландии, в
заливе Святого Лаврентия, вокруг о.
Ньюфаундленд и значительно реже
встречаются у п-ова Лабрадор и в
пределах Баффиновой Земли, в Гудзоновом заливе, у западного и южного
побережий Гренландии (3). Обычные
районы обитания пятнистых тюленей -
это тихие и закрытые бухты, заливы,
фиорды побережий и островов, а также устья рек с каменистыми рифами,
камнями и перекатами, за что вид и
получил свое название "тюлень гаваней". Ведет оседлый образ жизни,
придерживаясь излюбленных мест и не
предпринимая далеких миграций.


Численность. Общая численность двух
популяций тюленей в водах Северной
Атлантики, очевидно, не превышает
200 тыс. особей (3). В отечественных водах (западное побережье
Кольского п-ова) численность неизвестна, но, видимо, не превышает
нескольких сот голов. В прилежащих
водах Норвегии обыкновенные тюлени
- обычный вид. В прибрежных водах
Кольского полуострова этот вид тюленя никогда не был объектом широкого промысла, добыча его в прошлом
носила единичный характер. В настоящее время отмечено снижение
численности тюленей в водах Балтийского моря (4).


Лимитирующие факторы. В прошлом
снижение численности в водах Балтийского моря было связано с промыслом, в настоящее время - с
повсеместной интенсивной хозяйственной деятельностью, в частности с сильным загрязнением моря
отходами промышленного и сельскохозяйственного производства, оказывающими отрицательное влияние на репродуктивные органы самок (5).


Меры охраны. В российских территориальных водах Балтийского и Баренцева морей промысел обыкновенного
тюленя повсеместно запрещен. В СССР
сохраняется на основе Правил охраны
и промысла морских млекопитающих
(1975).


Источники информации: 1. Огнев,
1935; 2. Ивашин и др., 1972; 3.
Гептнер и др., 1976; 4. Хафтен
(личн. сообщ.); 5. Olsson,1978.
Составители: С. В. Мараков, Л. А.
Попов.











OPD, , - 2000-08-03 13:58:45 - host: atik2.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.63)


Победитель конкурса роботов-рифмоплетов:

Хорошо бродить по Марсу,
Прямо в кратеры плевать,
Самоцветные каменья,
Не стесняясь собирать!

Снаряжу-ка я кораблик,
Поплыву в ночной простор,
И в бинокль глядеть я буду,
Разрывая помидор.


Андроид-параноид, , - 2000-08-03 13:57:06 - host: goliath5.primary-server.net (216.71.84.142)


2_Ластаноганнен

В Абхазии сейчас хорошо!
А ты где был?

Хм_ырь, , Только Грузия и Марс - 2000-08-03 13:46:30 - host: cursa2.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.62)


О, ластоногий здесь... Первый вопрос снимается...
У кОго есть связь с базОй? Жду ответа, жду ответа..

OPD, , - 2000-08-03 13:45:55 - host: spica.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.103)


Кстати, Хм_ырь, куда подевались хозяева? Негостеприимно они как-то... Чухонцы они все такие невежливые? И тупые какие-то, поэзии не понимают... Или у ластоногих наступил периОд миграции?

Да! И прОпала связь с кораблем-маткой! СИней... В чем дело?

OPD, , - 2000-08-03 13:42:43 - host: spica.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.103)


2 Квартирант

"Евреи появились в Тифлисе после 1804 г."

А кто ж тогда населял Тифлис до 1804 г?? Неужели таки грузины???

Хм_ырь, , Только Грузия и Марс - 2000-08-03 13:42:03 - host: atik2.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.63)


Гутен Таг, гамарджобЫ!

Первыми на Луну прилетели все-таки французы, а не немцы. Не успели французы приземлиться, как на их ракету напал лунный медведь. Медведь тряс и раскачивал ракету, свирепо заглядывая в иллюминатор. Французы, чтобы не падать, уцепились руками за стационарные приборы. У одного француза даже случился припадок. В общем, французы не рискнули выходить на поверхность в такой недоброжелательной атмосфере и улетели.

Следующими полетели негры. Обкуренные марихуаной, они не поняли - куда приземлились. Зато стали свидетелями необычного явления - в иллюминатор они увидели, как лунная собака лазает на дерево и прыгает оттуда. "Вот дерьмо! - хохотали обдолбанные афроамериканцы. - Вот это дерьмо! Вот так удолбались черномазые засранцы!" Негры так смеялись, что долго не могли завести космический корабль. А когда завели, то опять куда-то улетели.

А вот у немцев не было особых приключений. Нормально долетели, нормально приземлились и неплохо устроились.

Фриц Дуберт надел скафандр и вышел из ракеты помочиться.
Помочившись на стабилизатор, Фриц задраил ширинку и пошел размять кости.

Он шел вдоль каменистых отрогов лунных кратеров, пиная ногами лунные грибы, пока не уперся в скалу. Фриц остановился и попытался обойти ее справа. По дороге он наткнулся на вход в пещеру. В пещере было абсолютно темно и только в углу горели два желтых глаза. Фриц вытащил пятидесятизарядный бластер и навел красный луч лазерного прицела промеж горящих глаз.

- Нихт шиссен битте! Ду бист Ганс! - сказали глаза. - Не стреляй пожалуйста! Это я Ганс здесь сру!

- Зер Гут, - сказал Фриц, опуская бластер. - Очень хорошо. - и вышел из пещеры.

Недалеко от пещеры на камне сидели два гермуду фила. Гермуду филы ели муравьев.
Фриц подошел поближе.
Гермудофилы не испугались.
Фриц подошел еще ближе.
Гермудофилы не обращали на него никакого внимания.
Фриц подошел вплотную.
Гермудофилы перестали есть муравьев и уставились на Фрица Дуберта.
Фриц подергал одного гермудофила за нос.
Гермудофил фыркнул и убежал.
Фриц дернул за нос второго гермуду фила.
Второй гермудофил залез под камень.
В это время из пещеры вышел космонавт Ганс, задраивая на ходу скафандр.

- Как дела? - спросил он.

- Хорошо, - ответил Фриц. - Помоги достать гермудофила.

Ганс попытался нащупать под камнем гермуду фила, но у него ничего не вышло.

- Гермудофилы едят муравьев, - сказал Фриц. - Используем муравья для приманки.

Космонавты поймали муравья и стали совать им под камень.
Гермудофил не вылезал.
Ганс отпустил муравья, воткнул под камень палку и перевернул его.
Под камнем оказалась дыра.


- Вперед в дырку, - крикнул космонавт Ганс.

И полез первым.

Немцы ползали часа четыре. Было темно и неинтересно.

- Хальт, Ганс, - сказал Фриц. - Поползли назад, у нас скоро кончится кислород и нам капут!

- Натурлих, - ответил Ганс, - мне уже надоело здесь ползать. Для чего нам сдались эти гермудофилы?!

Немцы поползли назад. Через несколько часов Фриц сказал Гансу:

- Ганс, впереди три прохода. Ты не помнишь, по какому мы приползли?

- Нихт ферштеен. Я не помню.

- Давай поползем по среднему, а если поймем, что ошиблись, то вернемся и полезем в левый или в правый.

- Давай, Фриц.

Проход становился всё уже и уже. Наконец немецкие космонавты уперлись в стену подземной горы.

-Ахтунг! - сказал Фриц. - Ганс, это неправильный путь. Надо было лезть вправо или влево.

- Возвращаемся быстрей, пока у нас не кончился кислород. - Ганс свистнул.

- Ганс, по-моему, у нас проблемы.

- В чем дело, Фриц?

- Проход такой узкий, что мы не сможем развернуться.

- Тогда придется ползти задом-наперед.

- Гут.

Немецкие космонавты поползли задом наперед. Наконец Ганс уперся ногами во что-то твердое и остановился. Ему в гермошлем уперся ногами Фриц.

- Хальт, - сказал Ганс. - Мы опять уперлись в стену подземной горы.

- Я не понимаю, как это получилось?

- Я думаю, что проход опять разветвился и мы влезли не в тот, в какой надо.

- Тогда поползли обратно, - сказал Фриц. - По крайней мере, теперь мы будем ползти как следует - вперед головами.

Немцы ползли, ползли и выползли, в конце концов, в темную пещеру.
В глубине пещеры светилась пара желтых глаз.
Фриц Дуберт радостно крикнул:

- Гутен таг! Кто тут срет?!

Раздался оглушительный рев и глаза кинулись на немецких космонавтов.

- Ганс, - закричал Фриц, - это не немцы! Это срет свирепый лунный медведь! Давай назад!

Космонавты вползли в проход и быстро поползли обратно.
Сзади их преследовал медведь, но в одном из разветвлений медведь свернул не туда и потерялся.

- Теперь можно не спешить, - сказал Фриц, - медведя не слышно.

- Да, но кислород на исходе. Поэтому не надо терять темпа.


В это время команда немецких космонавтов отправилась на поиски пропавших товарищей. Впереди с пятидесятизарядным бластером шел командир корабля, пилот высшего класса Зигмунд Ротенкнопф.
Справа на камне сидел гермудофил и ел муравьев.

- Хенде хох! - крикнул ему Ротенкнопф.

Гермудофил посмотрел на Ротенкнопфа.

- Гер командир, - сказал доктор Хас. - Гермудофилы не боятся нас, потому что они не боятся никого. На луне никто просто не знает, что такое страх.

- Это их пугали не так, как следует, - возразил командир Ротенкнопф. - Сейчас я напугаю его, как надо.

Он расставил пошире ноги, вскинул руки и крикнул:

- Хальт!

Гермудофил чуть-чуть приподнял нос.

- Ерунда! - сказал Ротенкнопф. - Не видал я еще такого зверя, которого нельзя напугать!

Он вытащил бластер и выстрелил у гермудофила над ухом.
Гермудофил свернул ухо трубочкой, а потом развернул.
Ротенкнопф выстрелил из бластера гермудофилу под ноги.
Гермудофил поджал пальцы и всё.
Ротенкнопф засунул бластер в кобуру, растопырил два пальца и сделал вид, что хочет ткнуть гермудофилу в глаза.
Гермудофил понюхал пальцы и лизнул их.
Ротенкнопф вытер пальцы об скафандр.

- Шайзе!

Он обошел гермудофила вокруг, остановился, подумал, неожиданно подпрыгнул и затопал на зверька ногами.

- Паршивый космический крокодил! Несчастная пупырчатая тварь! Всё равно я заставлю тебя перепугаться!

Гермудофил сложил губы трубочкой и тихонько посвистел.
Ротенкнопф вырвал у гермудофила из рук муравья, швырнул на грунт и растоптал.
Гермудофил недовольно загудел. У него удлиннилась рука, залезла под камень, вытащила нового муравья и поднесла ко рту.

- Ах ты жаба! - Ротенкнопф размахнулся и влепил гермудофилу затрещину.

Гермудофил свалился с камня и юркнул в дырку.
Ротенкнопф выхватил из кобуры бластер, подбежал к дырке и начал туда стрелять.

- Умри, свинья!

Он выпустил в дырку всю обойму и остановился, чтобы перезарядить.

- Нихт шиссен битте! - послышалось из дырки.

Ротенкнопф замер.

- Нихт ферштеен! - сказал он и, повернувшись к команде, спросил, - Разве гермудофилы говорят по-немцки?

Доктор Хас пожал плечами.
Ротенкнопф сунул голову в дырку и закричал:

- Шпрехен зи дойч?!

- Я-я! - послышалось в ответ. - Вир шпрехен зи дойч!

- Откуда ты знаешь по-немецки?

- Меня научили говорить по-немецки мама и папа!

- Откуда взялись твои мама и папа?!

- Из Баварии!

- Откуда в Баварии гермудофилы?! В Баварии нет гермудофилов!

- Нихт гермудофилы! Это мы - Фриц унд Ганс! Нихт шисен битте! У нас кончается кислород!

Из дырки вылезли немецкие космонавты Фриц и Ганс.

- Как вы туда попали? - спросил Ротенкнопф.

- Мы ловили гермудофила!

- Поймали?

- Нихт. Не поймали, - сказал Фриц.

- У нас кончается кислород, - добавил Ганс. - Нам необходимо немедленно восполнить его запасы.

- Доктор Хас, - приказал Ротенкнопф, - займитесь!

Доктор Хас хорошенько вдохнул, задержал дыхание, вынул из скафандра кислородный шланг и вставил в дырку скафандра Фрица. Потом вынул шланг у Фрица, еще раз вдохнул и вставил в дырку скафандра Ганса.

Пока Фриц и Ганс пополняли запасы кислорода, Ротенкнопф исследовал место, где сидел гермудофил.

- Я обнаружил тут немного влаги, - сказал командир. - По-моему, мне удалось его напугать и он от страха обделался.

Посмотрев, немецкие космонавты пошли в космический корабль пить шнапс из тюбиков.

Белобров - Попов

Ева Браун, , Великий Марс - 2000-08-03 13:41:12 - host: bellatrix.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.106)


Согласен. Грузины, вы какого, спрашивается, хуя повылезали из беседок? А как повылезали, дык ведете себя как неразумные дети. Был я недели полторы назад в Абхазии. (проверял возможность проведения в Гаграх на льду черного моря ближайшего ЧМ по хоккею) , видел как вы там, варвары, повеселись.
Мы йорики ведь, тоже, знаете ли завоевывали. (Мальту, например), но вели себя как приличные люди. И тоже, знаете ли любим на чужих гостевухах порезвится, но такого непотребства как вы не допучкаем.
Так что марш обратно в беседки и всем читать "Учебник ЗЧЕ для первого класса" под редакцией Л.А.Стоногого. Как раз новое издание на грузинском вышло. Развивайтесь.

Ластаноганнен, , - 2000-08-03 13:38:55 - host: wall.bflsm.spb.ru (195.5.157.4)


"Марсиянские хроники... день - 2-й... полёт - нармальный..."

"... Быть может, кто-нибудь из вас, друзья, удостоится чести лететь с одним из первых кораблей на Луну или Марс. Это случится, я верю, скоро, гораздо раньше, чем мы обычно себе представляем. Ведь не в сказке, не в фантастическом романе, а в контрольных цифрах семилетки сказано, что у нас "проводится подготовка к полетам на небесные тела". Вот вы и примете участие в этих полетах. И может статься, именно Петр Кузьмич Исаков будет тем врачом, который в последний раз нащупает ваш пульс, заглянет вам в глаза и скажет подчеркнуто спокойно: "Ну что ж, к полету, мой друг, вы готовы".

Анатолий Аграновский.

Репортаж из будущего
Москва 1959г."

зампо.тов.Абырвалг ПахомЫч, Сникерс, Марс - 2000-08-03 13:35:05 - host: heze.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.132)


Всем здрасьте!
Нет, я все-таки решительно не понимаю этих чухонских пионеров? Почему это грузины и марсиане ебнутые?? Ну, на каком таком основании?? Только потому, что мы не любим чуххок?!
Ну и хули? Зато мы много знаем о космосе, о других цивилизациях, поем грузинские песни и знаеми толк в вине...И к тому же нас любит Зураб Кикналидзе! А о вас он даже не знает!

Так, что прекращайте пионерить и занимайтесь каждый своим делом, а мы - своим. У нас дел много!
А если вам так уж у нас не нравится - сделайте кнопочку "Выход для членов Х.У.Й" и валите на свой гест нафиг!

Кстати, если кого-то все-таки интересует космос, Марс и все такое, спрашивайте, не стесняйтесь! Постараемся ответить всем!

И не надо хулиганить и обзываться! Нам еще жить и жить с вами! :)

Хм_ырь, , Только Грузия и Марс - 2000-08-03 13:32:47 - host: cursa2.anonymizer.com (216.34.244.62)


Отчет 1ZXT99ERT. Совершенно секретно.

Докладаю у ЦУП! Завершен первый этап разведки. Предварительные результаты дают повод для размышления. Хотя нах оно надо...

System warning: internal psychology problem was detected

Ахсним! Вопчем, это... В непосредственной близости от места высадки обнаружено место...

System message: pun detected

...которое местные называют Марсовым полем.

При проверке местной телесети обнаружен подозрительный сюжетик: абориген по имени Вовка учит неких инопланетных чуни-муней играть в хоккей. Причем все это разворачивается до вселенских масштабов. Никаких ссылок в нашем эпосе на подобные вещи не обнаружено.
Гипотеза1: гипертрофированная любовь местных к хоккею
Гипотеза2: оте хоботастые, что накинулись на нас недавно с клюшками под Альдебараном, это и есть чуни-муни
Гипотеза3,стандартная и всевсегдаобъясняющая: грузины продолжают шутить:)
Следов Зураба не обнаружено.

До связи...

Андроид системы FZ третьего поколения RpSRR234-Гурам

Андроид-параноид, , - 2000-08-03 13:21:56 - host: goliath5.primary-server.net (216.71.84.142)


Цхели мутели всем!
Большой и чистой, как поцелуй непорочной девы!

Примите же от меня, а также от всего архитектурного ансамбля, скромный подарок:


Цхели мутели всем!

Зураб Церетели, <(с архитектурным ансамблем)> Великий, Ужасный - 2000-08-03 13:21:43 - host: 212.188.115.3 (212.188.115.3)